>>OKAY, SO WE WILL GET STARTED,
I INTRODUCED OUR SCIENTIFIC
BOSS, SO THIS MORNING I'M
INTRODUCING OUR CLINICAL BOSS
MARILYN P A O WHO IS THE
CLINICAL DIRECTOR OF THE NIMH
INTRAMURAL RESEARCH PROGRAM.
SO MARILYN?
>> ALL RIGHT, GOOD MORNING,
LET'S GIVE EVERYBODY THE
STEERING COMMITTEE AND THE STAFF
THAT ARE WORKING HERE AND ALL
THE LVC STAFF THAT HAVE BEEN
WORKING SO HARD A BIG HAND FOR
HOW WONDERFUL THIS SYMPOSIUM HAS
BEEN, SUCH A GOOD STEERING
COMMITTEE.
SO I DO HAVE PREPARED REMARKS
BUT AS KYLE YOUNG COINED THE
TERM SYNCHRONISSITY, THIS
MORNING'S IS MOURNING THE
PASSING OF ROYALTY, THE PASSING
OF OUR OWN NIH ROYALTY AND IT'S
JUST A MOMENT TO REFLECT.
SO ON BEHALF OF THE NIMH
INTRAMURAL RESEARCH PROGRAM, I
WANT TO THANK YOU ALL FOR COMING
TOGETHER FOR THIS WONDER
CONTRIBUTION TO CELEBRATING
LESLIE UNG ERLEIDER, AND AS YOU
HEARD YESTERDAY, LESLIE WAS
CLEARLY A WOMAN OF SIGNIFICANT
SCIENTIFIC SUBSTANCE AND
INFLUENCE, PRODUCING OUTSTANDING
RIGOROUS SCIENCE AND MENTORING
GENERATIONS OF SCIENTISTS AC50S
SHE FTION BOTH, VERY, VERY
PASSIONATE ABOUT, YESTERDAY I
HEARD FROM ALL OF YOU, A STRONG
SENSE OF HOW FOR LESLIE, IT WAS
ALL ABOUT GOOD QUESTIONS WITH A
CAPITAL Q.
CLARITY OF COMMUNICATION, AND
CONNECTIONS ISSUES NOT ONLY THE
NEURAL CIRCUIT KIND BUT WITH
TRAINEES AND SCIENTISTS AROUND
THE WORLD BECAUSE SHE TRULY
ENJOYED THE CAMARADERIE IN
PURSUIT OF FUNDMENT AMILLIO
KNOWLEDGE.
SHE WAS DETAIL ORIENTED AND
ENDLESSLY ENERGETIC WHEN IT CAME
TO EXPERIMENTS, A DISCIPLINARY
MINUTIVE GIANT IN THE FIELD, SHE
COULD BE BLUNT BUT WITH CARING
AND A SENSE OF HUMOR.
ALWAYS AN ADVOCATE FOR WOMEN,
SHE MANAGED TO CREATE A
INCLUSIVE, DIVERSE AND EXCHANGE
OF CULTURES FOR HONEST IDEA
BECAUSE IT WAS FASHIONABLE.
TO ME HE WAS A PETRESSABLE TIT
IRREPRESSIBLE DYNAMO WHOSE
PRAJILE HEALTH OVERCAME MANY
CHALLENGES AND WAS FAMOUSLY
STOIC AND FEARLESS.
SHE WAS PROTECTIVE OF HER
FRAINEES AND STAFF AS THEY
WORKED FOR HER AND HOW THIS HAS
BEEN PUT TOGETHER BY
[INDISCERNIBLE], JOHN, DEB, AND
THOSE WHO TOOK CARE OF HER BY
DAY-TO-DAY AND ALEX AND CHRIS
WHOSE SECTION SAYS MADE UP THE
LABORATORY.
I WANT TO FOCUS ON JUST A MOMENT
WITH LESLIE'S ACHIEVEMENT WITH
REGARD TO EFFORTS ON CLINICAL
TRANSLATION RESEARCH.
THERE ARE VERY FEW BASIC
INVESTIGATORS WHO CAN CONTRIBUTE
SUCCESSFULLY SO DEEPLY TO
FUNDMENTAL WORK IN ANIMAL MODELS
OF ANATOMY, FUNCTION AND
BEHAVIOR AND STILL CONDUCT HUMAN
SUBJECTS RESEARCH THAT
MEANINGFULLY CONTRIBUTES TO OUR
UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN VISION,
COGNITION AND SYSTEM SYSTEM
NEUROSCIENCE, EVEN THIS MORNING,
THE HEALTH SECTION HAD A PAPER
ON FACE BLINDNESS,
[INDISCERNIBLE].
LESLIE'S LABS MAIN PROTOCOL, FOR
OBJECT PERCEPTION,
IDENTIFICATION, LOCALIZATION AND
MEMORY HAS BEEN RUNNING SINCE
1993 AND AACCRUED ALMOST 3000
PARTICIPANTS.
IN ADDITION SHE ADDED TOP DOWN
ATTENTION CONTROL OF VISUAL
PROCESSING IN 2010 AND TMS
INVESTIGATIONS OF HAD HUMAN
VISUAL SYSTEMS IN 2018.
THOSE ARE ALL RUNS AND MANY HAVE
BEEN SUN SETTED SINCE THEN.
LESLIE AND HER LAB ARE AMONG THE
MOST ACTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE
CLINICAL PIs IN THE NIMH IRP,
AND MOST RECENTLY LESLIE WAS
REALLY EXCITED ABOUT HOW THE
[INDISCERNIBLE] CONTRIBUTES TO
THE PROCESS OF FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES
AND HUMANS AND YOU WILL BE
HEARING, I HOPE, ABOUT THAL
AFTERNOON.
SO LESLIE'S CONTINUED GIFT OF
BEING THE FOCUS OF THIS
CONFERENCE ALLOWING THIS AMAZING
GATHERING OF NEUROCOGNITIVE
SCIENTISTS WILL IMPACT AND
INSPIRE ALL OF US TO CARRY ON
WITH GOOD QUESTIONS.
EMILY DICKENSON ONCE WROTE:
UNABLE ARE THE LOVE TO DIE FOR
LOVE IS IMMORTALITY.
THIS OUTPOURING OF LOVE AND
ADMIRATION IS A FITTING TRIBUTE
FOR LESLIE WHO WAS A PROUD AND
INDEPENDENT WOMAN WE KNOW SHE
WAS KIND, GENERATED IRBEROUS,
SUPPORTIVE, FOURTH RIGHT,
ENGAGING AND MOST OF ALL
ENGAGED.
HER EVER EXPANDING
INTERDISCIPLINARY METHODOLOGY
AND HER PRECISIVE DEEP KEY
QUESTIONING REPRESENT THE BEST
OF WHAT THE IRP CAN OFFER AND
HER NIH FAMILY WILL MISS HER
INDEED.
THANK YOU.
[ APPLAUSE ]
EMPLOY.
>> CAN YOU HEAR ME?
>> YES, WE CAN HEAR YOU.
>> I WILL BEGIN.
HELLO MY NAME IS ELI MIRIAM, I
AM THE OTHER SYMPOSIUM CO
ORGANIZER AND HAD THE BAD
MISFORTUNE OF CONTRACTING COVID
RIGHT BEFORE THE MEETING, I'M
SORRY I CAN'T BE WITH YOU IN
PERSON TODAY, I AM GRATEFUL TO
SHARE MY REMARKS OVER ZOOM.
SO I WOULD LIKE TO SPEND A FEW
MINUTES ON LESLIE BEFORE
INTRODUCING THE FIRST SPEAKER OF
THE DAY.
OF COURSE LESLIE IS BEST KNOWN
FOR HER PIONEERING WORK WITH
[INDISCERNIBLE] ON THE 2
CORTICALE VISUAL SYSTEMS.
YESTERDAY WE HEARD A BIT FROM
[INDISCERNIBLE] AND CAROL
KD--SALLY WAABOUT SOME OF
LESLIE'S LESSER KNOWN EARLIER
WORK ON [INDISCERNIBLE] AS A
GRADUATE STUDENT AT IS STANFORD
WORKING WITH KARL
[INDISCERNIBLE].
SO TODAY, I WOULD LIKE TO GO
EVEN FURTHER BACK IN TIME TO
LESLIE'S Ph.D. WORK WITH TED
KUNZ, AT NYKS U.
I RECENTLY SPOKE TO TED AND I
WOULD LIKE TO SHARE WHAT HE HAD
TO SAY.
LESLIE JOINED TED'S LAB IN THE
LATE 1960S AND HE DESCRIBED
LESLIE AT TIMES AND WILL BE
FAMILIAR TO ALL WHO KNEW HER,
KIND, CARING HAD A GREAT LAUGH
AND AN INCREDIBLY CAREFUL
SCIENTIST EVEN THEN.
LESLIE AND TED ALONG WITH A
FELLOW GRADUATE STUDENT NICOLE
[INDISCERNIBLE] WORKED ON
HYPOTHALAMIC MECHANISMS ON
STIMULATION INDUCED REWARD IN
RATS.
TED TOLD A FUNNY NOTE, THEY SENT
2 PAPERS TO SCIENCE @ SAME TIME,
AND FOR MONTHS AND MONTHS THEY
DEPARTMENT HEAR ANYTHING BACK.
THEY FINALLY CALLED AFTER MONTHS
AND IT TURNS OUT BOTH OF SET
WITHOUT REVISION AND WERE SET TO
APPEAR THE FOLLOWING WEEK.
THIS MUST HAVE BEEN A EXCELLENT
EXAMPLE OF LESLIE'S METICULOUS
RIGHTING.
AS A SIDE, TED WANTED ME TO
RELATE THAT HE SUGGESTED SHE DID
A POST DOC FROM KARL
[INDISCERNIBLE].
TED NEW KARL WELL FROM THEIR
TIME TOGETHER AT YALE.
IN HONORING LESLIE IT WOULD BE
EASY TO FOCUS ON THE MAGNITUDE
OF HER SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENTS,
FROM HER SCIENCE PAPER AS A
GRADUATE STUDENT, TO THE 2
CORTICALE SYSTEMS, TO PIONEERING
WORK WITH THE FMRI AND PAPERS
AND TOP JOURNALS RIGHT NOW, BUT
DOING SO WOULD NOT TELL THE FULL
STORY.
I THINK 1 OF THE THINGS THAT
MADE LESLIE SO SPECIAL WAS
ARE--ADMINISTRATIVE IF I
CANNULATED BEAUTIFULLY BY DWIGHT
[INDISCERNIBLE] YESTERDAY
AFTERNOON.
LESLIE HAD AN OPENNESS ABOUT
HER, A NATURAL INTELLECTUAL
RECEPTIVENESS, SHE ALWAYS
WELCOMED AND INDEED THRIVED ON
FRESH IDEAS AND NEW
PERSPECTIVES.
I THINK THIS IS PART OF HOW SHE
SOMETHINGED TO TACKLE SUCH A
DIVERSITY OF QUESTIONS IN HER
CAREER.
LESLIE WAS OF COURSE PERFECTLY
BLUNT AND DIDN'T HOLD BACK
CRITICISM WHEN SOMETHING DIDN'T
MAKE SENSE BUT SHE ALWAYS
LISTENED.
IT DIDN'T MATTER IF YOU WERE A
NEW POST BACK OR A SENIOR SCRRGT
OR WHAT YOUR BACKGROUND WAS.
I BELIEVE THIS TRAIT WAS
CRITICAL FOR BUILDING THE
INCLUSIVE AND OPEN ENVIRONMENT
THAT IS SO CHARACTERISTIC OF LBC
TODAY, LESLIE'S MENTORSHIP
EXTENDED FAR BEYOND THE LBC, IT
NEVER A POST DOC WITH LESLIE AND
COLLABORATED WITH HER IN THE
LAST COUPLE OF YEARS, SHE WAS
VERY MUCH A MENTOR TO ME FROM
THE VERY BEGINNING AS A FIRST
YEAR GRADUATE STUDENT IN CAROLE
[INDISCERNIBLE] LAB, LESLIE
VISITED TO GIVE A SEMINAR, AT
LUNCH WITH STUDENTS LESLIE ASKED
ABOUT EACH ABOUT THEIR PROJECTS,
SEVERAL OF YOU ALREADY DESCRIBED
THE TWINKLE IN LESLIE'S EYE AS
SHE DISSECTED THE FIRST EPISODE
FROM THE BAD.
THIS WAS MY FIRST EXPERIENCE
UNDER HER SCALPEL, I REMEMBER
HOW NERVOUS SHE WAS AS SHE
QUESTIONED ME ABOUT EVERY DETAIL
OF MY FMRI EXPERIMENTS IN THE
HUMAN PARIETAL CORTEX.
BUT HER COMMENTS WERE SO
HELPFUL.
OVER THE YEARS EACH TIME I SAW
LESLIE, SHE WANTED TO KNOW
EVERYTHING I WAS UP TO, FULL OF
HELPFUL ADVICE.
LESLIE HAD SO MANY ADOPTED
MENTEES AROUND THE WORLD, IN THE
YEARS BEFORE NEUROTWITTER AND
SOCIAL MEDIA, IT FELT AS THOUGH
LESLIE WAS THE CENTER OF THE
WORLD'S LARGEST SOCIAL
NEUROSCIENCE NETWORK.
I WANT TO MENTION 1 MORE THING
BEFORE I INTRODUCE OUR FIRST
SPEAKER.
LESLIE HAD AN AMAZING SUPERHUMAN
ABILITY TO PERSEVERE THROUGH
DIFFICULTY.
I REMEMBER OUR VERY LAST
CONVERSATION IN DECEMBER 2020,
THE DAY BEFORE SHE DIED, WE HAD
EACH JUST SUBMITTED OUR BSC
REPORTS AND LESLIE WAS
EXPERIENCING PAIN AND I WONDERED
WHY DIDN'T SHE JUST TAKE IT
EASY, PERHAPS TAKE A WEEK OFF
BUT SHE WAS LASER FOCUSED ON
PREPARING FOR THE DSC TALK EVEN
THOUGH THIS WAS MORE THAN A
MONTH AWAY.
SHE CLEARLY LOVED THE SCIENCE.
SHE LOVED HER WORK AND HER GRIT
AND INTENSITY WERE SIMPLY
AWE-INSPIRING.
I AM SO GRATEFUL I HAD THE
OPPORTUNITY TO KNOW AND ACT WITH
HER AS I DID, THANK YOU LESLIE.
SO NOW I WANT TO INTRODUCE OUR
NEXT SPEAKER MICKEY GOLDBERG,
MICKEY JOINED BOB WAXER URTZ'S
LAB AS AN NEI LAB ASSOCIATE IN
1969.
AFTER A RESIDENCY IN NEUROLOGY
AT HARVARD, MIC RETURNED TO THE
NEI IN 1978 AS A INVESTIGATOR IN
THE LABORATORY SENSORY MOTOR
RESEARCH WHERE HE REMAINED FOR
OVER 20 YEARS BEFORE MOVING TO
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY WHERE HE'S
NOW THE DIRECTOR OF THE MA HONEY
CENTER FOR MIND AND BRAIN.
MICKEY HAS SO MANY AWARDS AND
DISTINCTIONS THAT I COULDN'T
POSSIBLY GIVE A PROPER ACADEMIC
INTRODUCTION IN THE ALLOTTED
TIME SO I'M NOT GOING TO EVEN
TRY.
I DO WANT TO SAY, HOWEVER, THAT
I KNOW HOW FOND LESLIE WAS OF
MICKEY AND MICKEY I AM SO GLAD
THAT YOU'RE HERE TO PARTICIPATE
IN THE SYMPOSIUM.
THE TITLE OF MICKEY'S TALK IS
THE ROLE OF PROPRIMATESY
ACCEPTION IN SPATIAL AND VISUAL
MEMORY.
>>SO HENRY WIDE WHAT SAID IT
MUCH BETTER THAN I COULD EVER,
HE WAS A METAPHYSICAL POET FROM
THE 17th CENTURY.
SO I FIRST MET LESLIE WHEN SHE
CAME AS A POST DOC TO WORK WITH
MORT.
BOB AND I [INDISCERNIBLE] AND A
COUPLE OTHER PEOPLE AND MORT
WOULD OCCASIONALLY GET TOGETHER
TO TALK ABOUT ISSUES IN VISUAL
SCIENCE AND LESLIE SHOWED UP AND
FROM THE MOMENT SHE STEPPED
THROUGH THE DOOR, I WAS
DELIGHTED BECAUSE THERE WAS
ACTUALLY SOMEONE SHORTER THAN I
WAS AND IT WAS APPARENT THAT SHE
WAS ABSOLUTELY BRILLIANT.
AND HER CAREER IT UNFOLDED WAS
BREATH TAKING.
WE ACTUALLY COLLABORATED ONCE ON
A PAPER.
SHE AND MORT HAD MADE STRIPE
LESIONS IN A MONKEY UNILATERAL
LESIONS AND WE WERE CURIOUS OR
WHETHER MONKEYS COULD MAKE
ACTUAL SAN FRANCISCO CADS TO
MOVING AT ALL AND IT TURNS OUT
THEY COULD BUT THEY COULD NOT
SEE THE SACADs AT ALL.
SO MOST OF MY INTERACTIONS WITH
LESLIE WERE PLEASURABLE.
SHE AND I FOR EXAMPLE HAD A
FONDNESS FOR LUNCH AND WE WOULD
SHARE IT OCCASIONALLY.
WE WERE BOTH MEMBERS OF A
WONDERFUL GROUP CALLED THE
INTERNATIONAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
SYMPOSIUM, THE PURPOSE OF WHICH
IS TO HAVE A MEETING AND A
PLEASANT PLACE IN EUROPE IN THE
LAST FULL WEEK OF JUNE BEFORE
THE PRICES GO UP AND INEVITABLY
THERE WERE WONDERFUL PLACES TO
HAVE LUNCH AND LESLIE AND I
FOREIGN REMEMBERED A LUNCH WE
HAD AT [INDISCERNIBLE] A 3 STAR
RESTAURANT IN BURGUNDY THAT MADE
THE NECESSITY OF HAVING TO COME
TO FRANCE AND GIVE A TALK WORTH
WHILE.
LIFE WAS ALWAYS WONDERFUL WITH
LESLIE AND I MISS HER.
CLASSIC PROBLEM IN VISUAL AND
SCIENCE IS THAT RETINA MAPS ARE
USED LESS FOR SPATIAL
LOCALIZATION, RICARDO TALKED
ABOUT THAT THE OTHER DAY, THE
BRAIN HAS TO TRANSFORM THE
RETINAL SIGNAL TO A PATTIALLY
ACTIVE SIGNAL AND THE OCULAR
MOTOR VISION VEGZ OF THE PROBLEM
IS SACADs ARE MADE IN SPACE
NOT TO A POINT ON THE RETINA, SO
THE--CONSIDER--YOU'RE LOOKING AT
A FIXATION POINT MONKEY OR HUMAN
AND 2 LIGHTS APPEAR AND
DISAPPEAR SX HEAT YOU'RE ASKED
TO MAKE 2 SEQUENTIAL SACADs TO
THOSE 2 LIGHTS, NOW THE FIRST
SACCADES IS BUYS BECAUSE THE
RETINAL VECTOR AND MOTOR VECTOR
ARE THE SAME BUT WHEN YOU'RE EYE
IS AT A, WHEN YOU'RE EYE IS AT
A, THE RETINAL LOCATION OF THE
SECOND TARGET IS WRONG BECAUSE
THE MONKEY NOW HAS TO MAKE A
HORIZONTAL SACCADE WHICH HAS TO
COMPENSATE FOR THAT FIRST
SACCADE.
SO THE BRAIN HAS TO DO SOME
MAGIC.
[INDISCERNIBLE] MADE A GREAT
SUGGESTION ABOUT THE NATURE OF
THAT MAGIC.
HE NOTED THAT A PATIENT WHO WOKE
UP 1 DAY WITH A [INDISCERNIBLE]
COULDN'T MOVE HIS EYE TOWARDS
HIS EAR, HAD THE ILLUSION AND
HAD A RETINAL HEMORRHAGEOT OTHER
SIDE SO HE COULDN'T SEE OUT OF
THE OTHER EYE THAT WHEN HE TRIED
TO TO MAKE A SACCADE TOWARDS HIS
EAR, HE COULDN'T AND WHAT HE
PERCEIVED WAS THAT THE WHOLE
WORLD EXISTED TO THE RIGHT IN
THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION AND THEN
JUST DRIFTED BACK.
AND SO HELMHOLTZ SAID WOWS ARE
THE MOTOR SYSTEM FEEDS BACK TO
THE SENSORY SYSTEM TO ADJUST THE
SENSORY REPRESENTATION AND THIS
IS OF COURSE TRUE FOR ALL
SENSORY MODALITIES, AND TODAY WE
CALL IT COROLLARY DISCHARGE.
THE MOTOR SIGNAL THAT CHANGES
THE SENSORY REPRESENTATION.
SO WE DECIDED TO STUDY THIS IN
LIP, THE LATERAL INTERPARIETAL
AREA.
SO THIS IS CAROL [INDISCERNIBLE]
AND JOHN [INDISCERNIBLE].
AND SO WHY?
WELL, UNG ERLEIDER DID A
WONDERFUL SET OF EXPERIMENTS
LOOKINGA THE CORTICALE AND
SUBCORTICALE CONNECTIONS IN THE
LIP.
AND THEY FOUND IT IS IN THE
MIDDLE OF THE OCULAR MOTOR
SYSTEM, IT GETS PROJECTIONS TOO
AND FROM THE PARIETAL FIELDS,
AND DISPLAYS TO INTO THE EYE
MOVEMENTS AND GETS A PROJECTION
BACK FROM THEM THROUGH THE THAT
WILL AMILLIOUS AS A PROJECTION,
ALSO A POWERFUL CORTICALE
PROJECTION FROM V4 MSTS, P4 IS
INTERESTING BECAUSE IT'S PART OF
THE VENTRAL STREAM AS WELL BUT
IT DOES PROJECT CRITICALLY TO
LLIP.
PROJECTS TO INFERIOR TEMPORAL
CORTEX A LITTLE BIT TO
PARAHIPPOCAMPUS GYRUS THAT
[INDISCERNIBLE] SHOWED ARE
IMPORTANT IN SPATIAL MEMORY.
SO IT LOOKED LIKE THE PERFECT
PLACE TO STUDY IT AND AS RICARDO
TOLD YOU YESTERDAY, HE TALKED
ABOUT HELMHOLTZ'S SLIEWPGZ IN
LIP, SO IF A MONK SELOOKING AT A
FIXATION POINT AND NOT MOVING
HIS EYES, FLASHES STIMULUS IN
THE RECEPTOR OF THE NEURON, THE
CELL FIRES AND IF HE'S LOOKING
ELSEWHERE, THE CELL DOESN'T
FIRE, WHEN THAT STIMULUS
APPEARS, HOWEVER, IF HE MAKES A
SACCADE FROM 1 FIXATION POINT TO
ANOTHER AND THAT SACCADE IS
GOING TO BRING THAT STIMULUS
INTO THE RECEPTOR FIELD OF THE
NEURON, LIP NEURONS FIRE EVEN
BEFORE THE EYE MOVES.
HELMHOLTZ WAS RIGHT.
NOW THIS IS NOT A CRANEIO TOPIC
REPRESENTATION.
IT'S A SPATIALLY ACTIVE
REPRESENTATION IN RETINA TOPIC
TURNS.
V1 DOESN'T DO THIS, V1 IS JUST
LOCKED TO THE RETINA AND LOTS OF
OTHER PARTS OF THE BRAIN
INCLUDING [INDISCERNIBLE] BEFORE
[INDISCERNIBLE], WE SHOWED IT IN
THE FRONT FIELDS AND BURIED IN
THE FOLLICULOUS, AND GENERAL
PROPERTY OF DORSAL STREAM
NEURONS.
SO THERE'S ANOTHER SOLUTION TO
THE PROBLEM.
AND THIS IS CHARLES
[INDISCERNIBLE], HE DISCOVERED
SPINDLES IN THE OCULAR MOTOR
MUSCLES AND POSTULATED THAT THE
BRAIN SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF
FACIAL ACCURACY BY MEASURING
WHERE THE EYES ARE IN THE ORBIT,
WHERE THE HEAD IS ON THE
SHOULDERS AND IT'S
COMPUTATIONALLY VERY EASY TO
CALCULATE THE LOCATION OF AN
OBJECT IN THE WORLD, NOW IN
CRANEIO TOPIC SPACES RELATIVE TO
WHERE THE HEAD IS AND THAT'S
SHERRING TON'S FIRST STEP.
NOW THE EYE IN THE ORBIT
MODULATES THE VISUAL AREA,
CALLED GAIN FIELDS AND IT WAS
DISCOVERED BY RICHARD ANDERSON
IN MOUNT CASTLE IN 1983 AND THIS
IS AN EXAMPLE, SO IF A MONKEY IS
LOOKING UP TO THE LEFT, THE
NEURON FIRES VERY BRISKLY AND
THE MONKEY LOOKS DOWN TO THE
RIGHT, THE NEURON HARDLY FIRES
AT ALL BUT IT DOES, AND THE
CENTER OF THE RECEPTIVE FIELD
NEVER CHANGES AND FROM THAT, YOU
CAN FIGURE OUT WHERE THE TARGET
IS IN SPACE.
BUT WHAT PROVIDES THE ORBITAL
INFORMATION?
THEY THOUGHT IT WAS A DISCHARGE,
BECAUSE WE HAD POPULAR COLORIZED
DISCHARGE BUT THAT SIGNAL AND HE
THOUGHT IT WAS RELATED TO THE
SIGNAL ON THE EYE MUSCLES BUT
THAT SIGNAL COMES FROM THE
ELEVATOR AND IT WASN'T USEFUL,
AND THEN, I THOUGHT WELL MAYBE
THERE'S A REPRESENTATION OF EYE
POSITION IN THE CORTEX, THE
PLACE TO LOOK IS AREA 3A, SO MAT
O SENSORY CORTEX WHERE THE
SPINDLES LIVE EVEN THOUGH
MONKEYS DON'T HAVE A LOT OF
SPINDLES, THEY HAVE SOME, THEY
HAVE A RECEPTOR IN THEIR EYES
CALLED PALISADE ENDINGS AND IT
IS NOW A BITTER DISPUTE AMONG
SOME PEOPLE AS TO WHETHER OR NOT
PALISADE ENDINGS ARE SENSORY OR
MOTOR, I WON'T GET INTO THAT,
I'M A SPECTATOR.
BUT THIS NEURON, THE MONKEY
LOOKS UP AND THE NEURON STARTS
TO FIRE AFTER THE SACCADES, THE
MONKEY LOOKS DOWN, THE NEURON IS
SILENT AFTER THE SACCADE A GIVEN
AREA 3A IS TUNE FOR ALL
DIRECTION OF EYE MOVEMENT IN THE
CONTRA LATERAL EYE AND IF WE
ANESTHETIZE THE EYE THE SIGNAL
GOES AWAY AND THE CELL LIVES IN
AREA 3A IN THE FLOOR OF THE
CANNED WHAT WITH CELLS OF THE IN
THE TACTILE ACCEPT RESENTATION
OF THE BROW, IT'S S1.
OKAY, SO WHERE'S THE POSITION
SIGNAL OF THE GAIN FIELDS, IF IT
COMES FROM COROLLARY DISCHARGE,
IT WILL BE RAPID EVEN PRECEDING
EYE MOVEMENTS, IF IT COMES FROM
THE PROPRIMATESIO ACCEPTION
AREA, IT WILL BE SLOW BECAUSE
EACH EYE MOVES EVERY 60 MILLI
SECONDS ON THE AVERAGE.
[INDISCERNIBLE] AND I DID AN
EXPERIMENT TO TEST THIS.
WE ASKED THE MONKEY TO FIXATE
FOR 500 MILLISECONDS AND WE GIVE
HIM A VISUAL SACCADE TARGET AND
HE MAKES THE SACCADE WE CALL
THAT CONDITIONING SACCADE
BECAUSE NOW SOMETIME THROUGH 60
OR 50 MILLISECONDS LATER AND ALL
THE TIMES IN THE MIDDLE WE WILL
FLASH THIS MEMORY TUGGER, THAT'S
BASICALLY TO KEEP HIM PAY
HAPPENING ATTENTION TO THAT
LOCATION, AND THEN WE WILL HAVE
A MEMORY DELAY AND HE WILL MAKE
THE SACCADE.
NOW, WE CAN NOW COMPARE THE GAIN
FIELDS AFTER CONDITIONING
SACCADES, SO, IF A MONKEY MAKES
A SACCADE FROM A LOW GAIN FIELD
POSITION, TO A HIGH GAIN
POSITION, OR THE MONKEY CAN MAKE
A SACCADE FROM A HIGH GAIN FIELD
POSITION TO A LONE GAIN FIELD
POSITION, AND THEN WE CAN ASK,
WHAT IS THE TIMING OF THE GAIN
FIELDS AND FOR 61 OUT OF 89
CELLS THE GAIN FIELDS WERE
DETERMINED BY THE PRESACCADIC
EYE POSITION FOR AT LEAST 150
MILLISECONDS AFTER THE SACCADE.
LESLIE PROBABLY WOULD HAVE HATED
THIS SLIDE.
BUT SO THE GRAY IS THE STEADY
STATE LOW GAIN, AND THE RED IS
THE RESPONSE OF THE NEURON AFTER
WE FLASH THE TARGET 50
MILLISECONDS AFTER THE
CONDITIONING OF THE SACCADE OVER
A HUNDRED MILLISECONDS AFTER THE
SACCADE AT 250 MILLI SECOND
AFTER THE SACCADE IT'S TRUE BUT
AFTER 50 MILLISECONDS IT LIES,
WE SEE LYING, LIES FOR FAKE
NEWS, FOR 150 MILLISECONDS AND
THEN NORMALITY AT 250
MILLISECONDS.
SO, IF THE GAIN FIELDS ARE
INACCURATE, IS THE BEHAVIOR
INACCURATE BUT WE GO TO THE
STEP, THE SACCADE TASK, WE MACK
A MONK TOW MAKE A CONDITIONING
SACCADE AND THEN WE ASK THE
MONKEY TO FIXATE FOR 650, A
THOUSAND MILLISECONDS, FLASH 2
TARGETS, A BLUE 1, WHICH IS
GOING TO BE THE FIRST SACCADE
TARGET AND A RED TARGET WHICH IS
NOT-WHICH IS NOW IN THE MONKEYS,
THE RECEPTIVE FIELD OF NEURON
THAT WE'RE STUDYING, AND THE
MONKEY MAKES THE SACCADE TO THE
BLUE, WHEN THE RED TARGET AND
THE FIXATION DOT DISAPPEAR, AND
THE FIRST SACCADE IS RED IN THE
TOPIC AND THE SECOND REQUIRES
MAGIC.
OKAY.
NOW, IF THE MAGIC INCLUDES GAME
FIELDS, THE BRAIN WOULD THINK
THAT THE TARGET WAS HERE BECAUSE
THE CELL GAVE THE LOW GAIN FIELD
POSITION.
NOW, SO, I SHOULD HAVE HAD THAT,
TRUST ME, THE CELLS AT THAT
POINT ARE WRONG WHEN WE RECOVER
IT BUT LUCKILY AREA 3A PROVIDES
THE EYE POSITION WHICH CREATES
THE GAIN FIELDS.
HERE'S A CELL WITH A GAIN FIELD,
DOESN'T LIKE LOOKING UP, LIKES
LOOKING UP, DOESN'T LIKE LOOKING
DOWN, WE POOL, SIGNAL COMES
BACK, MORE OR LESS NOT
STATISTICALLY DIFFERENT AND WHEN
WE WARN IT GOES AWAY, SO WE SAID
OKAY, GAIN FIELDS COME FROM
OCULAR MOTOR PROPRIMATES O
ACCEPTION AND AND THAT'S TRUE
NOT ONLY TO THE NEURON THAT WE
SHOWED BUT WE HAVE A GAIN FIELD
OF THE HIGHEST VERSUS THE LOWEST
VISUAL RESPONSE AS A FUNCTION OF
YES, COOLING, AND THE AVERAGE IS
FROM A MULTIPLICATION OF 2.5, IT
GOES DOWN TO CLOSE TO 1.
AND IS THE DIFFERENCE IS
SIGNIFICANT.
SO, AREA 3A PROVIDES THE GAIN
FIELDS SO NOW WE CAN GO BACK TO
THE DOUBLE STEPS SACCADE TASK
AND ASK IS THE MORVEGY ACCURATE
OR INACCURATE AND DELIGHTFULLY,
THE MONKEY IS MAKING PERFECTLY
NORMAL DOUBLE STEP SACCADES WHEN
THE GAME FIELDS ARE ABSOLUTELY
WRONG.
AND I WAS DELIGHTED WITH THIS
RESULT BECAUSE THE FIELDS AREN'T
IMPORTANT IN SPATTERRIAL
ACCURACY.
WE DON'T KNOW WHAT THEY DO,
MIGHT BE A FUNNY VESTAGE LIKE
THE MALE NIPPLE, BUT THEY'RE NOT
DOING THE DOUBLE STEPS OF
SACCADE TASK AND THE ARROW IS A
FUNCTION OF THE FIRST SACCADE,
NOT OF THE SECOND.
NOW, IT TURNS OUT THAT THE
SACCADE SYSTEM HAS ACCESS TO A
CRANEIO TOPIC REPRESENTATION OF
SPATIAL MEMORY, AND THIS IS
DELIGHTFUL PSYCHOPHYSICAL
EXPERIMENT BY FIRST
[INDISCERNIBLE] BETTER BY
[INDISCERNIBLE], I WILL SHOW YOU
THEIR EXPERIMENT.
SO, THEY ASK HUMAN SUBJECTS TO
MAKE SACCADES AROUND A SCREEN IN
TOTAL DARKNESS AND OCCASIONALLY
AT THEIR [INDISCERNIBLE], A RED
DOT WOULD APPEAR, THEY WOULD GO
OUT, THE SUBJECT HAD TO REMEMBER
THAT, THEY ARE ASKED TO CONTINUE
MAKING SACCADES IN TOTAL
DARKNESS UNTIL A GREEN DOT
APPEARS AND THEN THEY ARE ASKED
TO MAKE A MEMORY SACCADE BACK TO
THAT ORIGINAL DOT AND FOR THE
FIRST 3 SACCADES, FOR THE FIRST
3 SACCADES, THE ERROR INCREASES
LINEARLY WHICH IS WHAT YOU WOULD
EXPECT IF EVERY TIME THE BRAIN
HAS TO MAP THE RECEPTIVE FIELDS
BUT AFTER 9 AND 10 SACCADES,
THERE'S AN ASSENT WHICH MEANS
THAT THE BRAIN HAS SWITCHED FROM
REMAPPING TO A CRANEIO TOPIC
REPRESENTATION, SO WE WONDERED
IF GAIN FIELDS WERE IMPORTANT
FOR THAT.
SO WE TOOK A MONKEY THIS, IS A 1
MONKEY EXPERIMENT SO FAR.
AS SYSTEM SCIENTISTS KNOW 1
MONKEY IS ANN ECTOMYOSIN
DETOMORROW NATION, 2 MONKEYS ARE
ETERNAL TRUTH.
SO I WILL TELL YOU ANN
ECTOMYOSIN DETOMORROW NATION.
SO WE GIVE THE MONKEY A NUMBER
OF DIFFERENT FIXATION POINTS AND
HE MAKES--TO MAKE SACCADES
ACROSS IN A LINE AND WE FLASH
BASICALLY 2 TARGETS AT DIFFERENT
TIMES.
ONE IS IN THE LEFT FIELD, THE
OTHER IS IN THE RIGHT FIELD, NOW
PATHWAY GIVES RIETA PATIENTS
HAVE 2 LESIONS, THEY HAVE A
VECTOR LESION, THEIR SACCADES
FOR SLOWER, A LITTLE BIT SLOWER
IN THE CONTRA LATERAL LOCATION
AND BUT THEY ALSO--AND THEY
NEGLECT THINGS IN THE CONTRA
LATERAL LOCATION AND IN AN ALLO
SEBT RICK FIELD THERE'S A
CLASSIC EXPERIENCE WHERE A
PARIETAL PATIENT IS ASKED TO
DRAW A CLOCK AND HE PUTS ALL THE
NUMBERS ON THE CONTRA
LATERAL--ON THE IPSA LATERAL
SIDE, ALL RIGHT, SO WE WANTED TO
KNOW IS THIS A FIELD EFFECT AND
A RIGHT FIELD EFFECT AND I BET
VECTOR BUT WE DID THE
EXPERIMENT, SO WE'RE NOW GOING
TO COOL AREA 3A AND WE WILL ASK
THE MONKEY TO MAKE INTERVENING
SACCADE AND HE IS REALLY GOOD
AFTER INTERVENING SACCADES AND
HE'S GOOD AFTER 5 INTERVENING
SACCADES, COOL, THIS IS LEFT
CRANEIO TOPIC FIELD ISSUES
THAT'S THE CONTRA LATERAL
DIRECTION, 2 INTERVENING
SACADsS, HE HAS A LITTLE BIT
OF TROUBLE, EVERYBODY HAS
TRIEWBL WITH THAT, IT'S MUCH
WORSE, THE RED ARE THE 1S FOR
WHICH THE MONKEY WAS WELL
OUTSIDE THE AREA AND IN FACT
THEY WENT TO THE CONTRA LATERAL
FIELD SO HE HAD NO IDEA WHERE
THE TARGET WAS AFTER 5 5
INTERVENING SACCADES.
BUT FOR LEFT, SAME THING.
SO THIS IS A FIELD EFFECT, NOT A
VECTOR EFFECT.
AND IN THE RIGHT FIELD, IN THE
RIGHT VISUAL FIELD, THE CRANEIO
TOPIC FIELD, RATHER HE'S PRETTY
GOOD.
IN BOTH DIRECTIONS OF SACCADES.
SO THERE'S ANOTHER PROBLEM,
MEMORY GUIDE SARKD ON SACCADES
MAY NOT SERVE AS A VERY GOOD
MODEL FOR LONG-TERM SPATIAL
MEMORY.
WHEREVER YOU ARE IN THE WORLD IF
YOU SET UP AN INVOLUNTARY IMAGE
OF YOUR ENVIRONMENT, CAN YOU
POINT TO THE DOOR WITH YOUR EYES
CLOSED RIGHT NOW, DO THE
EXPERIMENT IF YOU WANT.
BILATERAL PARIETAL PATIENTS
DON'T DO THIS, THERE'S A NICE
PAPER PUBLISHED MANY YEARS AGO
BY DAVE AND MARTHA
[INDISCERNIBLE].
DISP THE GOLD STANDARD, SO MICE
FIND TO LEARN IN A SWIMMING POOL
USUALING VISUAL CUES IN THEIR
ENVIRONMENT AND PART OF JOHN
O'KEEFE'S NOBEL PRIZE WAS PRICE
WITH HIPPOCAMPAL LESIONS CAN'T
DO THIS, THEY CAN'T SOLVE--THEY
NEVER FIND THE PLATFORM.
AND WE ASK DOES THAT PROCESS
SWIMMING TOWARDS A HIDDEN
PLATFORM REQUIRE MAKING A
TRANSITION FROM A RETINAL SPAT
YALE AREA, SO I WENT UP STAIRS,
KNOCKED ON RANDY BRUNO, THE
WORLD'S EXPERT IN THE MOUSE
SOPHISTICATED MAT O SENSORY
SYSTEM, NOW IN OXFORD AND SAID,
HEY, RANDY IF YOU MAKE LESIONS
IN THE MOUSE EQUIVALENT OF AREA
3A COULD THEY SOLVE THE MARSH
WATER MAZE FOR THOSE OF US WHO
ARE UNFAMILIAR WITH MOUSE
ANATOMY.
THIS IS ACTUALLY SQUIRREL BUT
ALL RODENTS ARE ALIKE IN THE
DARK.
THIS IS S1, THE EQUIVALENT THE
AREA 3A IS CALLED THE
DISGRANULAR ZONE OF THE FIRST
SOPHISTICATED MAT O SENSORY
CORTEX AND IT LIES BETWEEN THE
REST OF S1 INCLUDING THE BARRELL
FIELDS AND M1 BASICALLY IN THE
PRIMATE AS WELL.
A PART OF THIS, SO
[INDISCERNIBLE] IN RANDY'S LAB
MADE S1 LESIONS IN 12 MICE.
THIS IS THE HISTOLOGY.
THIS IS HERE, THIS IS THE
LESION, NOTICE, THAT THE
HIPPOCAMPUS IS INTACT, THIS IS
CRITICAL BECAUSE IF WE DINGED
THE HIPPOCAMPUS THAT COULD HAVE
CAUSED THE CAMPUS AND THE MARSH
WATER MAZE IS THE MONKEY SWIMS
AROUND EMPLOY THERE ARE VARIOUS
SYMBOLS ON THE WALL AROUND THE
SWIMMING POOL BUT HE CAN'T SEE,
THE PLATFORM, THE FIRST THING
THAT HE HAS TO DO, HE HAS TO
LEARN THE TRICK SO HE PUT A FLAG
ON THE PLATFORM ASK IT TAKES THE
MONKEY, THE MOUSE 2 DAYS 2
LEARN.
NOW WE TAKE THE FLAG AWAY, MOVE
THE PLATFORM AND IT TAKES AND IT
TAKES THE MICE A LONG TIME TO
FIND THE PLATFORM.
THIS IS ALL BEFORE SURGERY, THE
SHAM MICE HAD MORE TROUBLE THAN
THE LESION MICE, THE LESION MICE
OPENED THE DOOR, DID EVERYTHING
BUT STUCK OUT THE S1 DC, SO
AFTER DAYS WE MAKE THE LESION
AND THE MICE HAVE A LITTLE
TROUBLE, BOTH SETS OF MICE HAVE
TROUBLE THE FIRST DAY AFTER THE
LESION.
BUT THE SHAM MICE CONTINUE TO
LEARN AND THE LESIONED MICE
DON'T.
SO LEARNING STOPS BUT THEY DON'T
FORGET WHAT THEY ARE ALREADY
LEARNED.
SO NOW, WE MOVE THE PLATFORM AND
DO IT OVER AGAIN, THE SHAM MICE
ARE CRUMMIER ON THE FIRST DAY
BUT THEY LEARN.
AND THE LESION MICE DON'T LEARN.
SO MICE, IN ORDER TO SET UP A
IMAGE OF REMEMBERED SPACE,
VISUAL SPACE, REQUIRE OCULAR
MOTOR PROPRIMATESSER ACCEPTION
TO MAKE THE TRANSITION FROM A
RETINAL SIGNAL TO A SPATIAL
SIGNAL AND I THINK BUT DO NOT
KNOW THAT THE REASON
THEY'RE--OH, THE OTHER THING IS
IMMEDIATELY AFTER WE HAVE THEM
DO THE FLAG EXPERIMENT,
THEY--CAN YOU SWIM TO A FLAG AND
THEY HAVE NO PROWBL.
SAME TIME AS BEFORE.
SO THE REASON, I THINK IS THAT
THEY'RE USING REMAPPING TO FIND
THE FLAG.
THEY DON'T HAVE TO WAIT FOR 150
MILLISECONDS OR 250 MILLISECONDS
FOR THE RETINA SPATIAL MEMORY,
THE VISUAL SPATIAL MEMORY TO BE
PRESERVED.
THEY HAD NO VESTIBULAR PROBLEMS
EVER, WE USED AN AIR RIDING TEST
WHERE WE FLIP THE MOUSE OVER
UPSIDE DOWN AND HE FLIPS OVER
AND AT THE TIME THERE WAS NO
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SHAM AND
THE LESIONS, SO NO DIFFERENT ON
MOTOR, NO DIFFERENT ON NORMAL,
SO THERE ARE 2 MECHANISMS FOR
WHICH THEY ACCURATELY REPRESENT
SPACE DESPITE A CONSTANTLY
MOVING EYE, A FAST SOMEWHAT
INACCURATE SYSTEM WHICH ARISES
FROM A COROLLARY DISCHARGE OF
THE MOTOR COMMAND AND A SLOWER
MORE ACCURATE CRANEIO TOPIC
SYSTEM WHICH USES MOTOR
PRECEPTION IN AREA A TO MODULATE
THE VISUAL RESPONSE.
I HEARD FRED PLUM GIVE A TALK 1
TIME, WHEN WE SAY I, I MEAN WE,
AND WHEN I SEE WE, I MEAN THAT,
AS CAROL KNOWS I, MY POST DOC,
THAT'S VERY TRUE.
SO CAROL AND [INDISCERNIBLE]
DISCOVERED MAPPING AND
[INDISCERNIBLE] DISCOVER THE
OCULAR MOTOR PRECEPTIVE SIGNAL
IN 3A, AND [INDISCERNIBLE] DID
THE TIMING STUDY.
[INDISCERNIBLE] SON WHO WAS A
NEUROLOGIST WORKING IN MY LAB
DID THE COOLING EXPERIMENTS AND
STEVE [INDISCERNIBLE] CAME DOWN
FROM CANADA TO IMPLANT THE PROBE
AND KD--SALLY WAWONG AND THE SON
SHOWED THAT COOLING AREA 3A
AFFECTS SPATIAL MEMORY.
I DIDN'T TALK ABOUT THAT, DID I,
BUT ALIVIA NOW STILL IN MY LAB,
AND RANDY'S LAB AND
[INDISCERNIBLE] AND ERIC
CANDAL'S LAB, IT WAS ERIC'S
WATER MAZE DISCOVERED THAT
PROPRIMATES O ACCEPTION IS
NEEDED FOR MICE TO GENERATE A
COGNITIVE MAP.
THANK YOU.
[ APPLAUSE ]
MARLENE?
>> THANKS FOR A GREAT TALK AS
USUAL, YOU SPED THROUGH AN
ENORMOUS NUMBER OF STUDIES AND
PULLED THEM TOGETHER IN ELEGANT
WAY.
I WANTED TO ASK YOU A BIT
ABOUT--
>> COULD YOU HAVE TERRIBLE
HEARING AND I HEAR BETTER WOUTR
A MASK.
>> CAN YOU HEAR ME NOW, I JUST
STARTED BY SAYING HOW MUCH I
ENJOYED YOUR TALK, I WANT TO ASK
ABOUT THE SHAM VERSUS THE
LESIONS IN THE MICE.
YOU SHOWED US THE BLUE AND THE
RED LINES AND HOW MUCH LEARNINGA
THERE WAS POST SURGERY, AND THAT
THE LESIONED MICE WERE UNABLE TO
LEARN.
I'M NOT SURE THAT I WOULD HAVE
INTERPRETED THAT FIGURE, I MEAN
THERE'S NO DOUBT THEY DIDN'T
LEARN AS FAST AS THE SHAM
ANIMALS BUT THOSE LESIONED MICE
WERE STILL LEARNING, THERE'S 1
SORT OF UNFORTUNATE BLIP IN THE
GRAPH BUT OTHERWISE THE LINE HAS
GOT A PRETTY NICE DOWNWARD
SLOPE, JUST SLOW.
>> BUT THERE WAS NO DIFFERENCE,
STATISTICAL DIFFERENCE ON THE
LAST DAY OF THAT EXPERIMENT WITH
THE LAST DAY OF RESEARCH AND
DATA.
SO, YEAH, IT COULD BE THAT IF
YOU GIVE THE WORLD ENOUGH TIME,
THEY COULD DO IT BUT I'M NOT--I
HOPE THEY COULDN'T.
WELL, THE OTHER THING OF COURSE
IS HUMAN PATIENTS WITH THOSE
PARIETAL LESIONS NEVER LEARN
WHERE THE DOOR IS.
THEY'RE OUR POSITIVE CONTROLS.
WE HAVEN'T WORKED ON THE MONKEY
LONG ENOUGH TO KNOW IF HE GETS
BETTER, I THINK HE MAY.
BUT THAT'S WHY.
THANK YOU.
[ APPLAUSE ]
>> THANKS, MICKEY.
ALL RIGHT OUR NEXT SPEAKER IS
BETSY MURRAY FROM--ACTUALLY
SHE'S THE CHIEF OF THE
LABORATORY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY.
YESTERDAY THERE WERE A LOT OF
PICTURES OF WHAT WE CALL LN, THE
LABORATORY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
FROM THE DAYS THAT LESLIE WAS IN
THE LAB WITH BOB, WITH BARRY
RICHMOND AND ALL OF THEM, THERE
WAS BETSY, I KEPT SAYING OH
THERE'S BETSY, THERE'S BETSY.
SO SHE OBVIOUSLY OVERLAPPED A
LOT WITH LESLIE SHE'S GOING TO
TALK TO US NOW.
>> THANK YOU ALEX, I WOULD LIKE
TO SAY WHAT EVERYBODY ELSE SAID
BEFORE, THANKS SO MUCH TO THE
ORGANIZERS AND THE ENTIRE TEAM
WHO PUT THIS TOGETHER HAS REALLY
BEEN, I'M JUST SO PLEASED TO BE
HERE AMONG ALL THESE COLLEAGUES
AND FRIENDS OF LESLIE.
SO THANK YOU FOR MAKING IT
HAPPEN.
SO I COULD GIVE SOME ANECDOTES
ABOUT LESLIE BUT I THINK THE
BEST THING FOR ME TO DO TODAY IS
GIVE A SCIENCE TALK, HOWEVER, I
HAVE 1 PICTURE TO GET STARTED.
THIS IS A PICTURE AS ALEX WAS
SAYING NOT OF THE LABORATORY OF
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY BUT FROM THE
80S, I BELIEVE.
WE HAVE BOB, LESLIE, ME, AND
STEVE WISE, SO AT THE TIME I'M
PRETTY SURE THIS WAS TAKEN AT
MORT MICHIGAN'S HOUSE WHERE
BARBARA AND MORT WERE KIND
ENOUGH TO HOST THE OCCASIONAL
SORT OF EVENING WITH LABORATORY
PSYCHOLOGY FOLKS INCLUDING
TRAINEES AND JUST FRIENDS AND
FRIENDS.
SO THIS WOULD HAVE BEEN A TIME
WHEN BOB, LESLIE AND I WERE ALL
IN THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND STEVE
WAS IN THE LABORATORY OF
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY AT EVERETT.
SO, WITH THAT IN MIND, I'M
PICKING UP WHERE MARCEL LEFT OFF
YESTERDAY, SO TAKING A NOTE FROM
MARCEL, I'M TALKING ABOUT THE
END OF THE PATHWAY, AND I WILL
TALK ABOUT PREFRONTAL AMYGDALA
INTERACTIONS IN SOCIAL COGNITION
AND DECISION MAKING.
HUMANS AND MONKEYS MAKE
DECISIONS ABOUT WHAT TO VALUE
AND WHO TO VALUE, WHO TO TRUST,
WHO TO COOPERATE WITH, WHO TO
COMPETE WITH, WHO TO HANG OUT
WITH AND SO ON DISP DECISIONS
ABOUT WHAT TO VALUE USUALLY
TYPICALLY INVOLVE NUTRIENTS AND
INCLUDING FOODS AND FLUIDS AND
OTHER RESOURCES THAT ARE
IMPORTANT TO ANIMALS AND
IMPORTANTLY LEARNING ABOUT WHAT
TO VALUE INVOLVES LEARNING THE
CUES AND SIGNS THAT PREDICT
THOSE RESOURCES.
SO I'M STARTING WITH THE
AMYGDALA BECAUSE THAT IS BOTH
HISTORICALLY A FACT OF WHERE I
STARTED IN THIS SYSTEM BECAUSE
OF OUR INTEREST IN THE AMYGDALA
AND THE FACT THAT M ORT AND I
HAD DISCOVERED FINALLY THAT IT
WASN'T CONTRIBUTING TO VISUAL
RECOGNITION.
SO I THOUGHT, OKAY, WE'VE GOT TO
KNOW MORE.
SO, WE KNOW NOW, AMYGDALA DAMAGE
DISCORRUPTS SOCIAL AND
EVALUATION, I WILL CALL IT AND
VALUE BASED DECISION MAKING OF
USING VALENTINEDUATION AS A
SHORT HAND FOR AND FOR REPRESENF
VALUE.
--SUBJECT OR PATIENT SM WITH
[INDISCERNIBLE] DISEASE.
WE KNOW THERE'S DECREASED GAZE
TO THE EYE REGION OF THE PHASE
IN PREVIEWING PARADIGMS, AGAIN,
IT'S TRUE IN BOTH HUMANS AND
MONKEYS AND ON THE DECISION
MAKING SIDE, THERE'S A SLOW
LEARNING OF SIMULOUS REWARD
ASSOCIATIONS BUT THIS ESPECIALLY
COMES OUT IN REINFORCEMENT
LEARNING KINDS OF TASKS WHERE
MONKEYS WITH THE LESIONS FOR
EXAMPLE, SHOW BOTH A SLOWED
LEARNING RATE IN PROBABLISTIC,
MAINLY PROBABLISTIC LEARNING AS
WELL AS A REDUCED CONSISTENCY OF
CHOICES.
SO THIS IS OUR SUBJECT INIA MA
KAK MONKEY AND THIS PHOTO
RESONATES WITH THE TOPIC OF MY
TALK WHICH IS HOW DO WE IDENTIFY
AND SELECT TARGETS OR GOALS FOR
ACTION?
, I'LL JUST SAY THAT THE
AMYGDALA AS WE KNOW ESPECIALLY
THE BASAL LATERAL AMYGDALA SHOWN
HERE IN THE ACCESSORY BASAL
NUCLEI RECEIVES A LOT OF SENSZRY
INPUT, MOR T WAS 1 OF THE PEOPLE
WHO WORKED ON THAT SYSTEM AS
WELL AS MARCEL, DAVID FREED MAN
AND I ALSO WORKED IN THE SYSTEM
THE PROJOAKSS ARE MODEL CITIZEN
MANY LOCATIONS BUT 1 OF THE MAIN
1 IS THE FRONTAL CORTEX, THE
VENTRAL LATERAL FRONTAL CORTEX
AND THE ENTIRE BASAL LATERAL
REGION PROJECTS INTO THE CENTRAL
NUCLEUS WHICH SOME PEOPLE OFTEN
DESCRIBE AS THE OUTPUT OF THE
AMYGDALA BUT THE CENTRAL NUCLEUS
OF COURSE PROJECTS TO MOST OF
THE SUBCORTICALE REGIONS LISTED,
MANY OF THOSE LISTED HERE,
LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS, BASAL
FOREBRAIN, PERIOCTETTAL DUCTAL
GRAY AND SO ON.
YEAH, I CAN SPEAK LOUDER, THANK
YOU.
SO MANY YEARS AGO WE STARTED
USING A TASK CALL THE
DEVALUATION TASK, WE TOOK THIS
CUE FROM RODENT WORK IT REQUIRES
MONKEYS TO LINK TO THE OBJECTS
AND LINK FOOD WITH VALUE AND
WE'VE USED THIS BEFORE JUST WERE
ASKING THEM IF THEY LINK AN
OBJECT WITH ANY OLD PIECE OF
FOOD, HERE THIS IS ASKING A
MONKEYS A DIFFERENT QUESTION,
ASKING THEM TO DISCRIMINATE
AMONG VALUE ITEMS AND WE KNOW
THE MONKEYS ARE DEALING WITH
FOOD VALUE BECAUSE WE TRAIN THEM
ABOUT FOOD REWARDS, ITEMS,
LABELED A AND B, LINKED
PARTICULARLY FOR THE REWARDS SAY
PEANUTS OR M& Ms AND WE
MANIPULATE THE VALUE OF THOSE
FOODS USING A SELECTIVE
ASSOCIATION PARADIGM.
SO THIS TASK RUNS INTO PHASES,
THE TRAINING PHASE AND THE TRUST
FACE, IN THE TRAINING PHASE
MONKEYS LEARN ABOUT A LARGE
NUMBER OF OBJECTS AND ASSOCIATED
FOOD REWARDS SO SOME OBJECTS ARE
REWARDED WITH PEANUTS OTHERS
WITH M& Ms AND THE VEHICLE FOR
THIS IS DISCRIMINATION LEARNING
SO HERE THE MONKEYS ARE LEARNING
TO APPROACH THE OBJECTS AND
DISPLACE THEM TO OBTAIN SOME
FOODS OR THE OTHER FOOD, OTHER
ITEMS ARE REWARDED WITH NOTHING.
THERE'S NOTHING THERE, SO AFTER
MONKEYS HAVE LEARNED ABOUT
OBJECTS AND THESE FOOD REWARDS
WE BRING THEM TO A SERIES OF
PROBE TESTS AND IN THESE PROBE
TESTS AND FOR THE FIRST TIME THE
MONKEYS ARE ASKED TO CHOOSE
BETWEEN 2 REWARDED OBJECTS AND
NOW WE SIMPLY RECORD IN NEEZ
BASE LINE SESSIONS, THE MONKEY'S
CHOICES BETWEEN A PEANUT OBJECT
AND A FRUIT SNACK OBJECT OR A
PEANUT OBJECT AND AN M& M OBJECT
FOR EXAMPLE.
WE RECORD THE CHOICES.
THERE'S NO WRONG ANSWER, BOTH
OBJECTS ARE REWARDED WITH ITEMS
THAT APPEARED IN TRAINING.
ON A SEPARATE DAY WE PREFEED THE
MONKEY 1 OF THE 2 FOODS LIKE
PEANUTS, OR SELECTION PROCEDURE
INTENDED TO DEVALUE THAT FOOD
AND THEN WE BRING THEM TO THE
TEST OPERATEUS AND ALLOW THEM TO
CHOOSE 2 CLASSES OF OBJECTS AND
YET ANOTHER DAY, WE PREFEED THE
MONKEY WITH FOOD, SAY M& Ms
AND THE TEST APPARATUS AND WE
CAN--WELL NORMAL MONKEYS DO A
CLEVER THING, IF YOU BRING THEM
PEANUTS, THEY WILL SHIFT THEIR
CHOICES AWAY FROM THE PEANUT
TOWARD THE REMAINING ITEM AND
THAT'S A SHIFT WE CAN QUANTIFY
AND WE SIMPLY QUANTIFY IT AWAY
FROM BASE LINE.
AND WE QUANTIFY THE DIFFERENCE
OF WHAT HAPPENS WITH SAN
FRANCISCO TIARASETY VERSUS BASE
LINE.
WE DID THIS WHEN [INDISCERNIBLE]
WAS IN THE LAB, THE VALUATION
SCORE WAS ON THE Y-AXIS AND THIS
IS 20 OUT OF 30 SO MAYBE 60%
SHIFT IN CHOICES, THE HIGHER THE
BAR HERE AND THE CONTROLS, THE
BETTER THE JOB THEY'RE DOING
SHIFTING AWAY FROM THE CHOICE OF
OBJECTS OVER THE DEVALUED FOOD,
THEY'RE MAKING ADAPTIVE CHOICES.
OUR MONKEYS WITH THESE LESIONS
ARE SHOWING LESS OF THIS AND
SIGNIFICANTLY SO.
SO MONKEYS WITH AMYGDALA REGIONS
ARE HAVING TROUBLE LINKING
INFORMATION WITH THE CURRENT
VALUE OF THE FOOD, TRUST ME
WE'VE DONE MANY CONTROL
EXPERIMENTS, WE CAN RULE OUT
ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF
THE DATA, MONKEYS HAVE GOOD
DISCRIMINATION ABILITIES, FOOD
PREFERENCES DON'T CHANGE NCH
SATIETY MECHANISMS ARE INTACT,
AND IF YOU GIVE THEM CHOIZS
BETWEEN SATED AND NONSATED FOOD,
THEY CHOOSE THE NONSATED FOOD
ALMOST EVERY TIME SO THIS
IMPAIRMENT THAT'S SHOW HERE AS I
SAID TO LINKING OBJECTS WITH THE
CURRENT VALUE OF THE FOOD, OF
COURSE THE AMYGDALA DOES NOT DO
THIS IN ISOLATION SO OVER THE
YEARS WE'VE MIND THIS TASK A BIT
AND WE FOUND THROUGH
DISCONNECTION EXPERIMENTS THAT
IS THROUGH SURGICAL
DISCONNECTION EXPERIMENTS IN
MONKEYS THAT THE AMYGDALA NEEDS
TO FUNCTIONALLY INTERACT WITH
BOTH THE ORBITAL FRONTAL CORTEX
AND THE MEDIAL MD THALAMUS IN
PERFORMING THIS FUNCTION AND
WHAT WE KNOW FROM THESE MONKEYS
IS THAT WE MAKE THESE CHOIZS
BASED ON THE VALUE OF THE GOAL
AND THE AMYGDALA AND FRONTAL
CORTEX NEED TO INTERACT IN THIS
PROCESS TO CODE AND UPDATE THE
VALUE OF THESE EXPECTED
OUTCOMES.
THERE'S ALSO BEEN EVALUATION
TEST IN HUMANS, I WILL MENTION
THAT QUICKLY, 1 CARRIED OUT IN
[INDISCERNIBLE] LAB BY JUSTIN
[INDISCERNIBLE].
ANOTHER CARRIED OUT MORE
RECENTLY WITH A DIFFERENT
PARADIGM, I WILL GO AHEAD AND
MENTION THE JUSTIN
[INDISCERNIBLE] FINDING FOR A
MOMENT AND IN THAT INSTANCE THE
MONKEYS WERE TREATED VERY
SIMILAR TO HUMAN, THEY WERE
INTRODUCED TO FOODS AND THEY
USED SATED IN A DIFFERENT WAY
AND THEY GAVE RATINGS OF THE
VALUE OF FOODS AND THIS IS
DAMAGE FROM THE PREFRONTAL
CORTEX WHICH INCLUDES LARGE
SWATHS OF ORBITAL AND MEDIAL
CORTEX, THE PATIENTS REPORTED A
MARKED DECREASE IN SUBJECTIVE
PLEASANTNESS RATINGS FOR THE
FOOD, SO JUST LIKE OUR MONKEYS
THEY DON'T WANT THE FOOD AND
THEN FINALLY MAISHTS WITH DAMAGE
TO THIS ORBITAL AND MEDIAL
SECTORS OF THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX
FAILED TO REDUCE THE CHOICES
THAT YIELD THE FOOD ITEM THAT
THEY NO LONGER DEEMED VALUABLE
BY SELF-REPORT, SO, THIS IS THIS
CLASSIC SORT OF DISCONNECTION OF
KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION THAT I
THINK IS REALLY MIRRORING THE
SAME MECHANISMS THAT WE'RE
SEEING IN MONKEYS.
SO WE WANTED TO GET AT THIS
MECHANISM IS THE RISK OF
INFECTION FOR PETE ON THE UPPER
RIGHT, DEVELOPED A TASK FOR
MONKEYS SO THERE'S A VALUE-BASED
DECISION MAKING TASK, SO MONKEYS
SEE 2 STIMULI ON THE SCREEN,
HE'S ACTUALLY FIXATING IN THE
CENTER, WHEN THE FIXATION LIGHT
BRIGHTENS HE'S ALLOWED TO
CHOOSE, MAKE A MANUEL CHOICE BY
PRESSING A BUTTON ON THE LEFT OR
WRITE, THE MONKEYS LEARN ABOUT A
SMALL NUMBER OF STIMULI THAT
PROVIDED WITH DIFFERENT AMOUNTS
OF JUICE SO I CALL A VALUE HERE
BUT THESE WERE ASSIGNED TO
PROVIDE 0-8 DROPS OF JUICE AND
OF COURSE THE PLAN WAS TO RECORD
FROM ORBITAL FRONTAL CORTEX WITH
BEFORE AND AFTER LESIONS OF TD
AMYGDALA FROM THE CORTEX AND WE
HAVE 2 SETS OF DATA AND SO THE
VALUE SIGNALS AND SO ON, THIS IS
A CLASSIC FINDING AND ORBITAL
CONTEXT NEURONS, THIS IS
ACTIVITY OVER THE FIRST HALF OF
A TRIAL, WHEN THERE'S 1 STIMUE
LIAISONS ON THE SCREEN THAT'S
SHOWN ON THE RIGHT HERE SO THIS
NEURAL ACTIVITY IS HAPPENING
ALTHOUGH MONKEY IS LOOKING AT,
OR AT LEAST FIXATING ON IT AND
THE STIMULUS WAS IN THE VISUAL
FIELD, 1 STIMULUS AND YOU CAN
SEE IT'S SORTED BY THE VALUE OF
THE STIMULI HERE AND IN THIS
PARTICULAR CASE, THE NEURONS
FIRE AT LEAST TO THE STIMULI
THAT PREDICT THE LOWEST FLUID
REWARD, THE YELLOW AND ORANGE
AND THE NEURONS FIRING MOST TO
THE HIGHER, STIMULATE AND
PREDICT THE HIGHER VALUE AWARD
AND AS I SAID MANY PEOPLE HAVE
FOUND THAT BEFORE AND WE WERE
COMFORTED TO FIND THAT AND THIS
IS HAPPENING IN A LOT OF
NEURONS, FOR EXAMPLE, NEURONS IF
YOU TAKE INTO--THE PERCENT OF
NEURONS THAT ENCODED VALUE WAS
REDUCED AFTER AMYGDALA LESIONS
SO THESE ARE STILL THE SAME
MONKEYS, THE SAME VISUAL STIMULI
THAT WE LEARN PREOPERATIVELY,
AND THE I THINK THE MONKEYS
STILL PERFORM THE TASK AT A HIGH
LEVEL, ALMOST A HUNDRED PERCENT
BECAUSE THESE WERE FAMILIAR AND
THAT WAS BY DESIGN IF THE
MONKEYS HAD BEEN STRUGGLING WITH
THE TASK OR IMPAIRED WITH THE
TASK THEY WOULD INTERPRET THEIR
OWN SIGNALS SO HERE THE MAIN
FINDING IS, ALTHOUGH BEFORE
SURGERY, AT ANY GIVEN TIME,
ACROSS A TRIAL, THERE WERE
HEALTHY 10-15% OF NEURONS
ENCODING VALUE AFTER AMYGDALA
LOSS OF THE AMYGDALA INPULTS,
THIS--THERE WAS A REDUCTION IN
THAT, A SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTION,
IMPORTANTLY, THESE DATA ARE
ALIGNED IN THE TIME OF REWARD
DELIVERY, SO AGAIN, THIS LOSS OF
AMYGDALA INPUT SYSTEM AFFECTING
BOTH THE ANTICIPATED REWARD
VALUE WHEN THE MONKEY'S JUST
LOOKING AT THE STIMULUS OUT HERE
AND THE RECEIVED REWARD VALUE
WHEN THE MONKEY RECEIVES THE
REWARD.
THE I SHOULD SAY IT WAS ALSO
JUST A ROBUSTNESS ON THE CODING
OF THE NEURONS.
THERE'S MORE TO DO ON THAT FRONT
AND I WOULD LOVE TO DO MORE
EXPERIMENTS TO GET A BETTER
HANDLE ON WHAT'S HAPPENING
DURING THAT ITS SO I THINK IT'S
A INTERESTING STORY CROSS
LINKINGEE A MECHANISM WE
INHERITED FROM OR VERTEBRATE
ANCESTORS BECAUSE THE ARK MIG
DUALA ROSE IN THE FIRST
VERTEBRATES AND THAT'S HELPING
US USE VISUAL CUES AND SIGNS TO
IDENTIFY AND FORAGE FOR
RESOURCES.
LIKE THIS MACAQUE, WHICH IS ALSO
TRUE FOR US IF YOU'RE PASSING BY
THE SUPER MARKET OR THE GOLDEN
ARCHES OR THE NICE GREEN SIREN
OF STARBUCKS, AND SO ON.
YOUR ORBITAL FRONTAL TORTEXT IS
TELLING YOU SOMETHING'S OUT
THERE, THERE'S A HANDFUL OF
STUDIES THAT IDENTIFY OR LOOK
FOR CHANGES IN CODING AND NEURAL
ACTIVITY THAT HAVE BEEN COMBINED
WITH THESE MUTATIONS, OF COURSE
THE GUSTATORY CORTEX OF RATS
LOSE THE ABILITY TO SIGNAL
PALATABILITY WHILE RETAINING THE
AGENT TO ENCODE BASIC SENSORY
FEATURES OF TASTE, THIS SHOWS
LESS ENCODING PREDICTOR AND
RESPONSE TO ODOR CUES SO THAT'S
SORT OF A PARALLEL TO WHAT AND
IN EARLIER STUDY I SHOULD SAY
THAT SORT OF INSPIRED US TO DO
THE STUDY IN LUNG CANCER BUT I
THINK, I THINK PRIMATES ARE
SPECIAL IN LIGHT OF VISUAL
INFORMATION THEY'RE USING AND
THE RICHNESS OF THAT VISUAL
INFORMATION.
THE STUDY I JUST TOLD YOU ABOUT
BY PETE [INDISCERNIBLE] AND THEN
FINALLY A STUDY DONE IN
COLLABORATION WITH LESLIE, SO
I'LL JUST SPEND A MINUTE
MENTIONING THAT, THIS LAST 1
HERE, [INDISCERNIBLE] AND LESLIE
FOUND THAT WHEN MONKEYS WERE
DOING PASSIVE VIEWING OF FACES,
THE AMYGDALA AND INFERIOR CORTEX
WERE MORE ACTIVE TO FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION RELATIVE
FOCUSED ON NEUTRAL FACES, THESE
WERE ALL FACES SHOWN TO MONKEYS
AND WE DECIDED TO ASK WHETHER
THE AMYGDALA OR WHETHER IT WAS
CONTRIBUTING TO THAT SO IN THIS
STUDY, MONKEYS WITH AMYGDALA
LESIONS WERE PUT IN THE SCANNER,
GIVEN THE SAME TASK, PASSIVE
VIEWING PACE AND WE FOUND A
REDUCTION IN THE FACE PATTERNS
WERE THERE AND IDENTIFIABLE BUT
THERE WAS A REDUCTION IN THE
VALANCE EFFECT.
SO WHAT I WOULD LIKE TO SUGGEST
FROM THE RESULTS OF THESE
FINDINGS WAS CONTRIBUTING A
REPRESENTATION OF WHATEVER IS OF
SPECIFIC BIOLOGICAL AND COURSE
IMPORTANCE ELSEWHERE IN THE
BRAIN UPDATED IN ACCORD WITH
CURRENT BIOLOGICAL WANTS AND
NEEDS AND THE EFFECTS OF THIS
INFLUENCE WOULD DEPEND ON WHAT
KIND OF INFORMATION EACH OF
THESE TARGET BRAIN AREAS IS
REPRESENTING AND OF COURSE LOSS
OF THE INPUT SORT OF REMOVES
THESE INFLUENCES, SO WHILE THEY
MAY BE ABLE TO FUNCTION JUST
FINE, IT JUST LACKS THE
RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MOST
SIGNIFICANT STIMULI IN THEIR
VALUE AT ANY GIVEN MOMENT.
I ALSO WANT TO SAY A WORD ABOUT
SINGULAR CORTEX, PART OF OUR
TRYING TO UNDERSTAND VALUATION
SYSTEMS WAS TO STUDY ANTERIOR
SINGULAR CORTEX AND SOCIAL
EVALUATION.
THERE WERE INDICATIONS THAT THE
ANTERIOR SINGULAR CORTEX WAS
CONTRIBUTING TO SOCIAL
COGNITION, SOME OF THE RESULTS
SHOWN HERE, THAT DECREASED TIME
SPENT IN PROXIMITY
[INDISCERNIBLE] SPECIFICS WITH
MONKEYS WITH ANTERIOR SINGULAR
CORTEX REGIONS, THOSE MONKEYS
ALSO SHOWED LATENCY TO RETRIEVE
FOOD REWARD IN THE PRESENCE OF
SOCIAL DECISIONS AND DECREASE
LATENCY TO RETRIEVE FOOD REWARDS
IN THE PRESENCE OF SOCIAL
STIMULI.
THE ALLOCATION TASK IS WHERE A
MONKEY CAN CHOOSE TO GIVE JUICE
TO A RECIPIENT MONKEY OR WITH
HOLD THE JUICE AND THE CHOICES
ARE LITERALLY BETWEEN BOTH AND
NEITHER OR SELF AND OTHER, AND
SO ON.
SO YOU CAN DO ALL THOSE
COMBINATIONS, SO MYA IN THE LAB
WANTED TO ASK WHAT ARE THE
CAUSAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF
ORBBITTAL FRONTAL AND THE
INTERACTIONS IN THESE KINDS OF
OBJECT AND SOCIAL VALUATIONS.
SO, FOR OUR SOCIAL VALUATION,
TASK, OR OUR METRIC, WE USE THIS
SYSTEM THAT I'VE BEEN USING FOR
A LONG TIME, THIS IS A MONKEY, A
TOP DOWN VIEW OF THE MONKEY AND
WGTA SO THERE'S A MONKEY
COMPARTMENT, TEST COMPARTMENT OR
EXPERIMENTAL COMPARTMENT, THOSE
ARE SEPARATED BY A SCREEN, AN
OPAQUE MOVEABLE SCREEN AND THE
MONKEY'S JOB IS TO, WHEN THE
SCREEN GOES UP TO REACH OUT AND
TAKE THIS PIECE OF FOOD HERE SO
THE LATENCY AT WHICH THE MONKEY
TAKES THE FOOD IS SOME INDICATOR
OF HIS INTEREST IN THE OTHER
THINGS THAT ARE OUT THERE,
INCLUDING STIMULI THAT COULD BE
PLACED INSIDE THIS BOX OR IN THE
EXPERIMENT I'M TELLING YOU ABOUT
TODAY, WE SHOWED SOCIAL VIDEOS
ON A MONITOR THAT WAS DIRECTLY
BEHIND THE FOOD.
SO, OUR QUANTITATIVE MEASURE IS
LAZY TO RETRIEVE FOOD AND AS I
SAID THE PREDICTION IS THAT IF
THERE IS SOMETHING OF BIOLOGICAL
INTEREST OUT THERE, THAT THE
LATENCY WILL INCREASED.
SO SOME OF OUR STIMULI, THE
NEWTIAL STIMULI, I AM NOT
SHOWING YOU THE VIDEOS, THESE
ARE MOVING BRAIN PATTERNS, THE
SOCIAL STIMULI INCLUDED A
SUBMISSIVE MONKEY, A STARING
DOMINANT MONKEY, A LIP SMACKING
MONKEY WHICH IS AN AFFILIATED
GESTURE AND A FEMALE PRESENTING
WHICH IS VERY ATTRACTIVE TO MAIL
MA CABBINGS, SO HERE ARE THE
RESULTS OF SOME OF THIS.
OT LEFT IS SHOWN AN EARLIER
RESULTS BY PETE RUDE BECK IN
WHICH THE SAME SET UP AND SAME
SOCIAL VIDEOS CONTROL MONKEYS
SHOWED A INCREASE LATENCY OF AND
CONTEXT OF STARING MONKEY VIDEO
AND MONKEYS WITH THE LESIONS
SHOWED MUCH LESS OF THIS, AND
THIS HESITATION, SO THEIR
INTERPRETERATION I'M SOING THE
CONTROL AND THEY TAKE FOOD VERY
QUICKLY, THE RETRIEVAL AND
3-5-SECONDS.
IT'S A NEUTRAL OBJECT OR VIDEO
AND WHAT - MAYA FOUND IN OUR
CROSS EVOLVING THE AMYGDALA AND
LESION IN 1 HEMISPHERE AND THE
LESION OF THE ANTERIOR SINGULAR
CORTEX IN THE FELPSIS FEAR SO
THESE 2 STRUCTURES CAN NO LONGER
FUNCTIONALLY INTERACT MAYA FOUND
MUCH OF THE SAME THING, THESE
MONKEYS ARE SHOWING THE LONG
LATENCY TO REACH FOOD, THE ARK
MIG DUALA ARE SHOWING MUCH LESS
OF THIS AND WHAT MYA WAS ABLE TO
SHOW BECAUSE SHE ACTUALLY HAD 2
GROUPS OF MONKEYS, WAS ACTUALLY
THIS DOUBLED ASSOCIATION WHERE
I'LL START WITH OUR MONKEYS I
JUST TOLD YOU, OUR MONKEYS WITH
THE DISCONNECTION OF THE
ANTERIOR SINGULAR CORTEX IN THE
AMYGDALA WERE PINE AND THE
OBJECT VALUATION DASK, THAT'S
THE DEVALUATION TASK I JUST
SHOWED YOU, SO THESE MONKEYS ARE
DOING FINE IN LINKING OBJECTS
AND PREDICTED VALUE BUT ARE
IMPAIRED ON THE SOCIAL VALUATION
TASK AND CONVERSELY MONKEYS WITH
CROSSED LESIONS OF THE AMYGDALA
IN THE FRONTAL CORTEX ARE POOR
OBJECT EVALUATION BUT QUITE GOOD
AND NORMAL AT SOCIAL VALUATION.
SO THIS IS, I REALIZE A SHORT
HAND FOR LOTS OF THINGS.
SOCIAL COGNITION IS INCREDIBLE
LIE COMPLEX AND THIS IS JUST--I
SUSPECTED THE ORBITAL FRONTAL
CORTEX IS IN FACT CONTRIBUTING
TO SOCIAL COGNITION, I JUST
DON'T KNOW HOW BUT THIS IS A
STEP TOWARDS THAT.
SO AS I SAID, WE INHERITED THE
AMYGDALA FROM OUR VERTEBRATE
ANCESTORS AND TODAY I SHOWED YOU
THAT THE AMYGDALA INTERACTIONS
WITH FRONTAL CORTEX CONTRIBUTE
TO AT LEAST 2 AREAS OF THE MANY
AREAS OF BEHAVIOR THAT AMYGDALA
IS INVOLVED WITH AND I WOULD
CATEGORIZE THOSE AS FORAGING
MECHANISMS TO PROMOTE FORAGING
AND INCLUDE CHOICES AND SOCIAL
SIGNALING.
SO ALTHOUGH THE AMYGDALA IS
CONSIDERED TO BE SPECIALIZED FOR
NEGATIVE AFFECT, I HOPE
EVERYBODY HERE UNDERSTANDS
THERE'S AMPLE EVIDENCE THAT
PLAYS A ROLE WITH THE POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE AFFECT IN HUMAN AND
NONHUMAN PRIMATES.
AMYGDALA INTERACTIONS WITH
PREFRONTAL CORTEX ARE ESSENTIAL
FOR AT LEAST SOME ASPECTS OF
FORAGING AND SOCIAL SIGNALING.
THOSE OTHER ITEMS THAT I
MENTIONED THAT THE AMYGDALA
CONTRIBUTES TOO TOWARDS THE GAZE
OF EYE REGION OR FACES AND THE
LIKE IT WILL BE INTERESTING TO
UNDERSTAND WHETHER THOSE DEPEND
ON INTERACADEMIESS WITH CORTEX
OR INTERACTIONS WITH
SUBCORTICALE SUBJEKS AND
DISENTANGLE THE INTERACTIONS
WITH CLINICAL AND SUBCORTICALE
REGIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THESE
DIFFERENT DOMAINS.
SO THANKS, THANKS TO ALL MY
COLLABORATORS, THE POST DOCS,
PETE, [INDISCERNIBLE], AND BEN
AND ALL CONTRIBUTE HERE,
RICHARD, [INDISCERNIBLE] ALL
CONTRIBUTED TO THESE EXPERIMENTS
AND I'LL STOP THERE.
THANK YOU.
[ APPLAUSE ]
>> HELLO, HI, I HAVE A QUICK
QUESTION.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TALK.
>> YES?
>> SO I BASICALLY WANTED TO ASK,
I'M SURE A LOT OF US HAVE A
FRIEND WHO RELIGIOUSLY ORDERS
CHICKEN TENDERS AND FRENCH FRIES
EVERYWHERE THEY GO AND NEVER
STOP, SO I WANTED TO KNOW LIKE
IF YOU HAVE ANYTHING TO SAY
ABOUT LIKE HOW SOME THINGS ARE
BASICALLY NEVER DEVALUED NO
MATTER HOW MANY TIMES WE GETTING
KIND OF LIKE THAT TRADE OFF
BETWEEN LIKE RELIABLE, AND
SOMETHING BEING NOT AS RELIABLE?
>> THAT'S INTERESTING.
I THINK IF YOUR FRIEND HAD
CHICKEN TENDERS AND FRENCH FRIES
AT 1 SITTING, AGAIN AND AGAIN
AND AGAIN AND AGAIN, THEY WOULD
ORDER SOMETHING ELSE, SO IT'S 1
THING TO HAVE STABLE FOOD
PREFERENCES WHICH ARE OF COURSE
INTERESTINGLY SET UP WITH
INTERACTIONS WITH YOUR GUT AND
YOUR BRAIN AND THIEP O THALAMUS,
ET CETERA--HYPOTHALAMUS, ET
CETERA AND IT'S A COMMON
PHENOMENON AND YOU EXPERIENCED
YOURSELF AND IF YOU'RE AT 1
SITTING AND YOU'RE EATING A LOT
OF 1 FOOD, YOU CANNOT EAT
ANYMORE AND THAT'S REALLY WHAT
THIS ASSOCIATION IS BUT THEN
YOU'RE HAPPY TO EAT DESSERT OR
SOMETHING ELSE OR A PIECE OF
FRUIT.
SO I'M NOT THE QUEEN OF
SELECTIVE SATIETY MECHANISMS BUT
IT HOLDS FOR ALL MAMMALS.
>> SO IT SEEMS AS THOUGH THERE'S
SOME SORT OF TEMPORAL SCALE
THAT--
>> WELL, YEAH, THE SELECTIVE
ASSOCIATION IS A TEMPORALLY
EMILY IMPEDIMENTSED PHENOMENON
WHICH IS WHY IT'S BEEN SO USEFUL
TO USE IN MONKEYS, SOMETIMES IN
RODENTS, TO GET SELECTIVE
ASSOCIATION TO PRODUCE A
DEVALUATION THEY USE A PAIRING
OF FOOD INGESTION IN LITHIUM
CHLORIDE TO PRODUCE ILLNESS, A
MILD ILLNESS AND WE CAN DO THAT
BUT THEN THAT'S PERPINENT.
--PERMANENT.
SO THAT WILL NOT HELP US TO ABLE
TO MANIPULATE THE SYSTEM, SO
THAT IS 1 THING AND THAT IS
STABLE AND THAT IS WHAT YOUR
FRIEND IS SHOWING BUT SELECTIVE
ASSOCIATION WITHIN A TIME FRAME
OF YEAH, A COUPLE HOURS IS A
DIFFERENT THING.
>> OKAY, AWESOME, THANK YOU.
>> SURE.
THANKS FOR YOUR QUESTION.
>> THANKS, BETSY FOR A
FASCINATING TALK AND YOU MADE ME
THINK A LOT ABOUT WHAT WE HAVE
TO DO WITH HUMAN PRIMATES NOW
GIVEN THAT WE'VE JUST SPERNT 3
YEARS LOCKED AWAY AND I THINK
OUR SOCIAL VALUATION SKILLS MAY
HAVE BEEN AFFECTED.
AND I'M NOT BEING FACETIOUS
HERE, I'M BEING SERIOUS BECAUSE
THIS HAS SERIOUS IMPLICATIONS
FOR ALL OF US WHO DO SOCIAL
NEUROSCIENCE AND I'M WONDERING
TO WHAT EXTENT THERE WILL BE A
BLIP OR A DISCONTINUITY IN SOME
OF THE DATA WE DLECT IN HUMAN
SUBJECTS AND WHETHER THEY MIGHT
BE GENUINE DIFFERENCES AS A
RESULT OF ISOLATION AND THAT
WE'VE BEEN PART OF A LARGE
GLOBAL EXPERIMENT THAT THE
PANDEMIC HAS PRODUCED.
I JUST WANTED TO HEAR YOUR
THOUGHTS ON THAT.
>> WELL AS A DEDICATED MA
CABBING RESEARCHER I'M NOT SURE
I'M IN A POSITION--I'M NOT
QUALIFIED TO ANSWER THAT.
I THINK THERE'S NO QUESTION WHAT
YOU'RE SAYING, THERE'S A HUGE
UPTICK NOW IN STUDIES OF THAT
KIND TO INVESTIGATE THE
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL ISOLATION
BUT I THINK IN TERMS OF THE MA
CABBING WORLD IT'S DEVILISHLY
HARD, YOU KNOW OUR INFORMATION
IS ONLY AS GOOD AS OUR ASSAYS,
AS OUR TESTS SO WE'RE STILL
TRYING TO DEVISE USEFUL AND
MEANINGFUL TESTS AND
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS
IF YOU WILL, BUT BECAUSE OUR
MONKEYS CAN'T TALK TO US, WE'RE
LIMITED IN THAT DOMAIN.
BUT I WILL BE GLAD--WE SHOULD
TALK LATER ABOUT ANY IDEAS YOU
MIGHT HAVE.
>> I JUST WANT TO MENTION THAT
THOSE OF US IN THE ROOM AND
ONLINE TO MAYBE REVISIT SOME OF
YOUR WORK IN THE PAST AND RELOOK
AT IT AGAIN AND BEHAVIOR
AFTERLET PANDEMIC.
>> BETSY, AMAZING WONDERFUL
TALK, WHEN YOU DESCRIBE FORAGING
IT'S FASCINATING BECAUSE
FORAGING IS VERY MULTIFACETED
RIGHT, SO THERE ARE MANY, MANY
COMPONENTS IN DECISION MAKING,
VALUATION AND WHAT NOT, SO I WAS
JUST WONDERING ON YOUR TAKE
WHETHER YOU--HOW BROADLY WOULD
YOU EXTEND THAT?
WOULD YOU EXTEND THAT ALSO TO
FORAGING INTENTIONAL MECHANISMS,
SELECTING CERTAIN INFORMATION
WHICH INTERACTS WITH THE
VALUATION SO IS THAT SOMETHING
THAT YOU CONCEPTUALIZE OR NOT
YET IN YOUR FRAMEWORK OR HOW
WOULD YOU DO THAT?
>> TWO THINGS I WOULD SAY, 1 IS
THE TASK AS I PRESENTED IT IS
PRETTY COMPLEX AND I GLOSSED
OVER IT AND I'VE BEEN TALKING
ABOUT VALUE UPDATES AND IN FACT
THIS THE VALUATION TASK THERE
ARE 2 MAIN STEPS, 1 IS THE
SELECTIVE ASSOCIATION AND WHAT'S
HAPPENING THERE.
A CHANGE IN THE REPRESENTATION
OF FOOD VALUE AND THE OTHER IS
THE CHOICE PART SO IN STUDIES IN
WHICH WE ENACTIVATED PORTIONS OF
ORBITAL FRONTAL CORDEXTRAN
SULFATE, WE'VE BEEN ABLE TO
DISASSOCIATE THOSE.
OF COURSE WITH PHARMACOLOGICAL
ACTIVATION, YOU CAN SEPARATE THE
PHASES OF THE TASK AND WE FOUND
THAT THE AMYGDALA NEEDS TO
INTERACT WITH THE KAWDAL CORTEX
TO DO THE VALUE UPDATING PART
BUT YOU NEED YOUR FRONTAL CORTEX
AREA 11 TO CHOOSE CORRECTLY EVEN
AFTER THE VALUE, SO AGAIN, IT'S
LIKE A DISCONNECTION OF
KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION KIND OF
THING, SO THAT'S 1 PART OF IT.
I DID HAVE ANOTHER PART TO THE
ANSWER, SORRY, SAY IT AGAIN, YOU
WERE ASKING ABOUT HOW--ATTENTION
OH YES, THANK YOU.
SO YES.
>> TERRIFIC.
>> SO THERE ARE THESE SEVERAL
DATA SETS SOME OF WHICH ARE
COLLECTED FROM OUR OWN LAB,
WHICH SHOW THAT YOU NEED YOUR
AMYGDALA TO DO INTENTIONAL KACCT
TININE PATHWAY UPPER BY FACES.
PETER CASKIN WAS OR IS HERE
YESTERDAY, SHE'S SHOWN THAT YOU
NEED YOUR AMYGDALA, I SHOULD
TURN IT AROUND, AMYGDALA DAMAGE
RESULTS IN LOSS OF ATTENTIONAL
CAPTURE BY PREDATOR IMAGES,
SOCIAL IMAGES, BUT NOT REWARDED
IMAGES, INTERESTINGLY, SO
THERE'S--AND OF COURSE JUST
[INDISCERNIBLE] WHO MAY TALK
ABOUT THIS OR NOT HAS SHOWN TO
DO SORT OF PREFERENTIAL VIEWING
OF PHASES, SO ALL THOSE THINGS
REALLY SMACK OF ATTENTION.
>> RIGHT.
>> AND THAT'S WHAT I WAS
ALLUDING TO IN MY TALK, I DON'T
KNOW THOSE WILL BE AMYGDALA
FRONTAL AND MECHANISMS RELATED
TO THE CENTRAL NUCLEUS,
PROJECTING TO REGIONS PERHAPS
INDIRECTLY TO THE SEVERE
FOLLICULAS TO DIRECT GAZE AND I
WOULD REALLY LIKE TO KNOW THAT.
>> OR THE AMYGDALA EXTENDS
ACROSS THE VISUAL CORTEX OVER TO
V1.
>> SAB LIEWTLY.
AND IT'S--ABSOLUTELY IT'S ALSO
IMPERATIVE TO KNOW WHAT THE
AMYGDALA IS TALKING TO THE
INFERIOR TEMPORAL CORTEX, WHAT'S
HAPPENING THERE. ABSOLUTELY.
>> THANK YOU SO MUCH.
>> THANK YOU.
>> BETSY BEAUTIFUL TALK.
SO YOU SHOWED US THE SYSTEM
DESIGN, FOR THINGS THAT MEAL
GUILT WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE
DESIRE FOR SOMETHING THAT WILL
HAVE LATER AND UNPLEASANT
CONSEQUENCE?
>> GUILT, I DON'T KNOW AND I
ADMIT I WOULD LOVE TO KNOW MORE
ABOUT AND UNDERSTAND RELATING
THINGS TO NEGATIVE AFFECT OR
VERSIVE OUTCOMES, I HAVEN'T GONE
THERE IN OUR MONKEYS BECAUSE AS
YOU KNOW WE HAVE TO--YOU KNOW WE
LIVE WITH OUR MONKEYS AND WORK
WITH OUR MONKEYS FOR YEARS AND
WE NEED TO MAINTAIN THE
COPERATION OF OUR MONKEYS AND
ALTHOUGH WE CAN DO MILDLY
AVERSIVE THINGS AND I HAVE FOR
EXAMPLE, SHOWING MONKEYS,
SNAKES, FAKE SNAKES, THOSE
AVERSIVE SORT OF--YOU KNOW THEY
DO HAVE AVERSIVE OR DEFENSIVE
RESPONSES IN RESPONSE TO THINGS
LIKE THAT BUT THAT'S VERY SHORT
LIVED AND VERY MILD.
SO I CAN ANSWER YOUR QUESTION, I
THINK THE GUILT PART AGAIN IS
GETTING TOWARDS SOMETHING THAT
SOCIAL EMOTIONS ALMOST THAT
COULD BE, THAT ARE STUDIED IN
HUMANS, BUT WE NEED TO KNOW MORE
ABOUT THE AVERSIVE SIDE.
>> THAT'S 1 THING THAT GETS LOST
IN SOME OF THESE PATIENTS WITH
FRONTAL LOBE LESIONS AND IT
WOULD BE INTERESTING TO STUDY
THAT IN SUCH PATIENCE AND THERE
ARE QUITE A NUMBER NOW,--
>> SO THE I HAVE A QUESTION
ABOUT BINGE EATING AND THE
ANIMAL LOST ITS VALUE CUE AND IT
COULD BE INHIBITING OR IMPAIR
HAPPENING GRABBING THE FOOD AT
THE EXPENSE MUCH LOOKING AT THE
VIDEO SO THOUGHTS ABOUT WHETHER
IT'S A LOSS OF SOMETHING
VALUABLE OR INHIBITING THE MOTOR
PART.
>> THANK YOU.
THAT IS A VALID QUESTION FOR
SURE.
YOU KNOW OUR ARGUMENT IS THAT
THE MONKEYS BECAUSE WE STUDY
DEVALUATION, WE KNOW WHAT IT
LOOKS LIKE WHEN YOU PREFEED AND
FEED A MONKEY AS MUCH 1 FOOD AS
IT WILL TAKE AT 1 SITTING AND WE
KNOW WHAT THAT LOOKS LIKE, I
THINK IN THESE TESTS IN THE
VIDEOS BEHIND WHERE THE MONKEY
IS FREELY TAKING FOOD AND THESE
ARE HUNGRY MONKEYS, I THINK
THERE'S NO REASON TO THINK THAT
FOOD VALUE HAS CHANGED SO ON THE
FOOD SIDE FOOD VALUE HASN'T
CHANGED.
I DON'T KNOW ABOUT LOSS OF
CONTROL AND I UNDERSTAND THE
LITERATURE THERE, I WOULD SAY
THERE'S ANOTHER IDEA ABOUT
ANTERIOR SINGULAR CORTEX THAT I
WILL INVOKE AND WE CERTAINLY
SAID THIS IN OUR PAPER WHICH WE
SAID THAT I THINK IT'S POSSIBLE
THAT IT'S NOT A LOSS OF SOCIAL
VALUATION SO MUCH AS A LOSS OF
PRIORITIZATION OF THE SIGNALS,
THAT ARE GUIDING ACTION AND
ACTION SELECTION.
SO, META-ANALYSIS IF YOU LOOK AT
THE FMRI META-ANALYSIS OF THE
INTERSINGULAR CORTEX, THERE ARE
3 THINGS THAT COME OUT IN THE
TOP 3, REWARD, SOCIAL, AND
MEMORY EPISODIC MEMORY, AND
THOSE SIGNALS ARE ALL--IT'S NOT
LIKE--THOSE ARE ALL INTERMINGLED
IN THE ROSTER PARTS OF ANTERIOR
SINGULAR CORTEX, SO, IT COULD BE
A WAY, LIKE I SAID, A PLACE
WHERE THERE'S SOME INTEGRATION
OF THESE VARIOUS THINGS AND IT'S
PRIORITIZATION RATHER THAN
SOCIAL VALUIZATION, I WOULD
SAY,.
>> THERE'S A LOSS OF CONTROL,
DESIRE IMMEDIATE GRATIFICATION
VERSUS LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCE.
>> ALL RIGHT, THANK YOU FOR
GENERATING SO MUCH DISCUSSION
BETSY THAT WAS GREAT.
I'M AFRAID WE'RE RUNNING A BIT
OVER TIME SO WE WILL TAKE A
REALLY SHORT BREAK, WELL'S
COFFEE AND TEA ON THE FES
TERRACE AGAIN.
PLEASE TRY TO BE BACK HERE, SO
WE WILL PUSH THE SCHEDULEOT 10
MINUTES SO BE BACK HERE AT BY
10:40 SO WE CAN GET STARTED
AGAIN.
>> I'D LIKE TO GET
STARTED AGAIN, PLEASE.
ALL RIGHT, SO, FIRST SPEAKER NOW
WILL BE TOM ALBRIGHT.
YOU KNOW EVERYBODY THAT WE
INVITED IS OBVIOUSLY VERY CLOSE
WITH LESLIE.
TOM OF COURSE IS 1 OF THOSE
PEOPLE BUT I ALWAYS THINK OF TOM
AS ALWAYS A FRIEND OF THE LBC
WITH THE LABORATORY OF BRAIN
COGNITION.
SEVERAL TIME SEVERAL PEOPLE HAVE
MENTIONED THE BSC, WHICH IS THE
BOARD OF SCIENTIFIC COUNSELORS,
E LIE MENTIONED IT THIS MORNING,
PETER MENTIONED IT YESTERDAY AND
IT'S A HUGE TO-DO HERE AND I
THINK PETER WAS TALKING ABOUT
HOW LESLIE WOULD MAKE EVERYBODY
PRACTICE AND PRACTICE AND
PRACTICE AND PRACTICE AND GIVE
FEEDBACK.
SHE, I DON'T MIND TELLING YOU,
WOULD GET EXTREMELY ANXIOUS
ABOUT THIS EVENT BECAUSE IT'S,
YOU KNOW THE BIGGEST THING THAT
HAPPENS IN INTRAMURAL RESEARCH,
THAT DICTATES WHETHER WE
CONTINUE ALONG OR NOT AND AFTER
WE GET ALL OUR PAPERWORK IN
BEFORE THE MEETING THEY WOULD
LET US KNOW WHO WILL BE COMING
TO REVIEW YOU AND THIS WAS THE 1
THING THAT KIND OF EASED
LESLIE'S ANXIETY, TOM IS COMING.
TOM ALBRIGHT'S FLYING IN FROM
SAN DIEGO AND SHE KNEW THERE
WOULD BE AT LEAST 1 FAMILIAR
FACE AND SUPPORTER AND SOMEBODY
WHO ACTUALLY UNDERSTOOD HER
SCIENCE.
SO WE ALWAYS THANKED TOM BECAUSE
HE WAS SURCH A HELP TO THE LAB
MANY TIMES, ACTUALLY, SO TOM AS
WE ALL KNOW IS AT THE SULK
INSTITUTE AND HE'S THE DIRECTOR
OF THE CENTER FOR THE
NEUROBIOLOGY OF VISION, SO TOM,
PLEASE.
>> THANK YOU ALEX AND I WANT TO
THANK THE ORGANIZERS OF THIS
EVENT AND PUTTING TOGETHER A
WONDERFUL TRIBUTE TO LESLIE AND
I'M IT'S GREAT TO SEE YOU ALL
HERE, I'M HONORED TO BE PART OF
IT, I SHOULD SAY AT THE OUTSET
THAT I NEVER WORKED WITH LESLIE,
NEVER COLLABORATORRED WITH HER
ON ANYTHING OF SUBSTANCE BUT I
KNEW HER FOR OVER 40 YEARS AS A
FRIEND, AS A COLLEAGUE, SHE WAS
A MENTOR TO ME AND SOMEBODY WHO
ADVISED ME AND WAS AN ADVOCATE
FOR ME IN MY OWN CAREER.
AND MY CONNECTION TO LESLIE
BEGINS HERE.
I WAS IN 1979 I ENROLLED IN A
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PSYCHOLOGY
AND NEUROSCIENCE AT PRINCETON IN
THE LABORATORY OF CHARLIE GROSS,
THAT'S CHARLIE AT THE TOP THERE
AND AT THE TIME THE LABORATORY
OF POPULATED BY THESE SHARP
LOOKING CHARACTER, ON THE
BOTTOM.
THAT WAS BOB, BOB FINISHED HIS
THESIS AND STAY OFFICE OF
DIVERSITY FOR ANOTHER YEAR OR
SO, RICARDO WAS A VISITING
SCIENTIST FROM BRAZIL, AND
CHARLIE WAS A POST DOC IN
CHARLIE'S LAB AND REMAINED FOR
ANOTHER YEAR OR SO AND THEN WENT
OFF TO WELCOMER WITH MICKEY
GOLDBERG ON THE FRONTAL EYE
FIELDS AND I HAD JUST GOTTEN OFF
THE BUS, AND AROUND THIS TIME
FOR A VARIETY OF REASONS, WHICH
I WILL TRY TO EXPLAIN IN A
SECOND, LESLIE STARTED TO SHOW
UP IN THE LAB AND I THINK 1 OF
THE EXPLANATIONS, PROBABLY THE
MOST IMPORTANT EXPLANATION FOR
THIS IS THAT CHARLIE HIMSELF HAD
A BACKGROUND IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
AND SO HE EMBRACED LESLIE
BECAUSE SHE HAD WORKED WITH 1 OF
CHARLIE'S HEROES KARL
[INDISCERNIBLE] SEVERAL YEARS
BEFORE AND SHE HAD ALSO BEEN
RECENTLY HIRED BY MORT MICHIGAN
HERE AT THE NIH AND SO WAS AN
EASY THING FOR CHARL TOW EMBRACE
LESLIE IN THE LABORATORY.
I THINK IT WAS MENTIONED
YESTERDAY LESLIE'S LOVE FOR
GOSSIP AND THAT WAS ANOTHER
THING THAT CHARLIE HAD AFFINITY
FOR BECAUSE I KNOW KNEW FEW
PEOPLE WHO LOVED GOSSIP AS MUCH
AS CHARLIE GROSS SO THEY BONDED
TOGETHER AND LESLIE DURING THIS
PERIOD OF TIME, EFFECTIVELY,
THIS WAS A PERIOD IN THE EARLY
DAYS OF TRYING TO FIGURE OUT THE
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE
EXTRA TRIATAL CORTEX IN
NONMUSEUM HUMAN PRIMATES AND
LESLIE BECAME PART OF TEAM
CHARLIE THROUGHOUT THAT.
NOW LESLIE, BOB EVENTUALLY WENT
ON TO THE NIH, AND I HAD WORKED
A LOT WITH BOB WHILE I WAS AT
PRINCETON, THESE ARE A
PROBLEM--DURING THE PERIOD OF
TIME IN WHICH WE OVERLAP SO HE
WAS HIRED BY MORT AND MOVED TO
THE NIH AND WE HAD ONGOING
COLLABORATIONS AND I HAD A
PERSONAL CONNECTION TO THE DC
AREA, I WAS BORN AND RAISED
ABOUT 5-MILES FROM HERE SO I
CAME DOWN TO WASHINGTON A LOT
AND VISITED BOB AND LESLIE IN
BUILDING 9.
AGAIN, EARLY 1980S, THIS WAS A
TIME IN WHICH THERE WAS NO FENCE
AND YOU COULD DRIVE ON THE
CAMPUS AND PARK RIGHT DOWN THE
STREET FROM BUILDING 9 AND WALK
IN THE DOOR AND I WOULD SPEND
THE DAY TALKING WITH BOB ABOUT
VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS AND SHOP
TALK ABOUT HOW TO TRAIN MONKEYS
BETTER AND I WOULD SPEND TIME
WITH LESLIE AND I GOT TO KNOW
HER DURING THAT TIME.
I APOLOGIZE FOR THE PICTURE OF
LESLIE, IT WAS THE ONLY 1 I HAD,
I THINK IT WAS TAKEN AT MY
WEDDING WHICH WAS NOW 4 YEARS
AGO, MY FIRST WEDDING.
AND SO, I SPEND TIME WITH LESLIE
DURING THIS PERIOD.
NOW WHAT I WANT TO TELL YOU
ABOUT TODAY IS THE INFLUENCE OF
LESLIE'S WORK ON MY OWN CAREER
BUT IN THE SPIRIT OF ANECDOTES
ABOUT LESLIE'S PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS I THOUGHT I
WOULD TELL YOU 1 BRIEF ANECDOTE
WHICH OVERLAPS WITH WHAT MICKEY
TOLD YOU EARLIER AND THAT WAS A
STORY INVOLVING THIS.
THIS WAS A MEETING OF THE,
MICKEY MENTIONED THE
INTERNATIONAL NEUROLOGICAL
SYMPOSIUM, THE INS WHICH IS 70
YEARS OLD AND MEETS IN EXOTIC
PLACES IN EUROPE EVERY JUNE AND
IT WAS A MEETING I WAS INVITED
TO, AND I HAD JUST FINISHED MY
Ph.D. AND I WAS INVITED TO
THIS BY MICKEY AND CHARLIE AND
IT WAS IN BONE IN THE BURGUNDY
WINE REGION OF CENTRAL FRANCE
AND THAT'S A BUNCH OF US HAVING
LUNCH THERE, THAT'S LESLIE ON
THE LEFT, GUS, ME, BARRY, BOB
AND THAT'S THE BACK OF OLIVER'S
HEAD.
AND THE ANECDOTE IS THE
FOLLOWING: SO CHARLIE BUTTER A
NURSE PSYCHOLOGIST AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN WAS A
GOOD FRIEND OF CHARLIE GROSS AND
ATTENDED THESE MEETINGS
REGULARLY AND CHARLIE BUTTER WAS
A SERIOUS FOODIE AND HAD BOOKED
A MICHELIN STARRED RESTAURANT,
I'M NOT SURE IF IT WAS THE SAME
1 THAT MICKEY WAS TALKING ABOUT,
OUT IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
COUNTRYSIDE, SAME 1?
YEAH.
BASICALLY A BARN IN A FIELD SOME
PLACE AND WE PILED INTO A BUNCH
OF CARS AND I WAS IN A CAR I
BELIEVE WITH CHARLIE, CANNED
WHAT, JOHN ALMAN WAS DRIVING AND
I THINK LESLIE WAS IN THE SAME
CAR AND THIS IS ANN ECTOMYOSIN
DETOMORROW NATION TO THE POINT
ABOUT LESLIE BEING BLUNT AND
LIKING TO BE IN CONTROL BECAUSE
ON THE WAY TO THE RESTAURANT
WHICH WE DIDN'T KNOW HOW TO GET
TO REALLY AND WE DIDN'T HAVE ANY
CELL PHONES OR INTERNET, AND WE
HAD A CRUMMY MAP, NO COMPASS,
AND THE ROADS ARE WINDY THROUGH
THE BURG ENDY COUNTRY SIDE AND
THEN IT GOT DARK AND THERE ARE
COWS IN THE ROAD AND ALL SORTS
OF FUNNY THINGS.
AND SO IT'S GETTING INCREASINGLY
TENSE INSIDE THE CAR BECAUSE THE
RESTAURANT IS GOING TO CLOSE AND
THE OTHER PEOPLE WE ASSUME THE
OTHER PEOPLE IN OUR PARTY WERE
ALREADY THERE, WONDERING WHERE
WE WERE AND CHARLIE AND I WERE
BOY SCOUTS SO WE WERE TRYING TO
CONTROL THINGS OF COURSE WE
DIDN'T HAVE ANY IDEA WHERE WE
ARE AND [INDISCERNIBLE] HAD A
LOT OF THINGS TO SAY ABOUT THIS
AS YOU MIGHT IMAGINE, JOHN WAS
QUIETLY DRIVING THE CAR AND
LESLIE, I THINK JUST TOOK
CONTROL OF THE WHOLE SITUATION
AND SAID THIS IS WHAT WE'RE
GOING TO DO, WE'RE GOING TO GO
THIS WAY AND THAT WAY AND
EVENTUALLY WE GOT THERE AND ALL
WAS GOOD.
WE GOT THERE ABOUT 5 MINUTES
BEFORE THE RESTAURANT CLOSED AND
THEY EMBRACED US AND IT WAS ALL
GOOD BUT ASTERISKS AN EXAMPLE OF
LESLIE'S PREFERENCE TO SORT OF
COMMANDEER THE SITUATION TO MAKE
GOOD FOR EVERYONE.
NOW WHAT I WANT TO TALK ABOUT IS
HER INFLUENCE ON MY CAREER, IT
GERONTOLOGYSTSINS WITH THIS,
THIS IS A PERIOD OF TIME IN
WHICH I WAS SPENDING A LOT OF
TIME WITH BOB AND LESLIE, AND
THIS CAME OUT, AND I--BECAUSE I
HEARD LESLIE TALK ABOUT IT, I
WAS FAMILIAR WITH THE CONCEPT,
EVEN BEFORE THAT TIME, AND I
WON'T GO INTO DETAIL ABOUT IT
OTHER THAN THE EFFECT IT HAD ON
ME, BOB SPOKE A LITTLE BIT ABOUT
THIS YESTERDAY AS HAVE OTHER
PEOPLE, THE THEORY, THE CONCEPT,
THIS IS A--SO THAT WAS A CHAPTER
PUBLISHED IN THIS OBSCURE BOOK
EDITED BY DAVID ENGLAND
JOURNALLE BUT IT WAS A
TRANSFORMATIVE PIECE OF WORK, IT
WAS LATER PUBLISHED IN SHORTER
MORE ACCESS EBL FORM WAS
PUBLISHED IN A TENS ARTICLE THE
FOLLOWING YEAR WAS WITH MORTON
AND CATHY.
AND I WON'T READ THIS, THE POINT
IS THAT THESE THINGS GET
SEPARATED, THESE STREAMS GET
SEPARATED IN THE VISUAL CORTEX
AND ULTIMATELY THE BIG QUESTION
IS WHEN DO THEY COME BACK TO
TOGETHER AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE SO
THIS IS AN IDEA, A QUESTION THAT
MOTIVATED AN ENORMOUS AMOUNT OF
RESEARCH OVER THE FOLLOWING
DECADES AND IT INSPIRED ME, AND
VERY SPECIFIC WAYS THAT WERE
SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE SORT
OF GENERAL THINKING ABOUT THIS
AND I WENT ON TO DO A WHOLE
BUNCH OF EXPERIMENTS ALONG THESE
LINES AND TO--AND I SHOULD SAY
AT THIS TIME IN CHARLIE'S LAB I
WAS DOING EXPERIMENTS THAT
INVOLVED RECARDING ACTIVITY FROM
SEMESTERS IN THE VISUAL CORTEX,
BOB AND I WERE WORKING ON
EXPERIMENTS INLET INFERIOR
TEMPORAL CORTEX IN THE AREA M.
T. AND IT WAS THE STANDARD THING
OF THAT ERA WHERE WE'RE
CHARACTERIZING THESE IN A
QUANTITATIVE WAY, THESE RESPONSE
PROPERTIES OF CORTICALE NEURONS
AND THAT WASN'T MOTIVATED BY ANY
PARTICULAR HYPOTHESIS ON HOW
SERIES POINTS ACCEPTION WORKED
BUT IT WAS FUNDAMENTALLY
IMPORTANT AND I CHES EITHER
ENROLLED IN A PSYCHOLOGY BAPTIST
AT PRINCETON AND I WAS REALLY
INTERESTED IN PERCEPTION, AND SO
THIS IDEA GOT ME THINKING A
LITTLE BIT MORE ABOUT HOW
PERCEPTION WORKS AND THEN
TRIGGERED A WHOLE SERIES OF
EXPERIMENTS THAT I DID AND TO
EXPLAIN THAT I HAD IT GO BACK TO
THE BEGINNING AND SHOW YOU THIS,
THIS IS A CONCEPT THAT SHOULD BE
FAMILIAR TO ALL OF YOU.
THIS IS THE CENTRAL PROBLEM OF
VISIONS, ACTUALLY 2 PROBLEMS.
THERE'S AN OPTICLE PROBLEM WHICH
IS TRIVIAL AND THEN THERE'S A
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM WHICH IS
REALLY COMPLICATED AND THAT'S
WHAT WE'VE BEEN WORKING ON, ALL
OF US AND THE PROBLEM IS
BASICALLY HOW DO I INFER THE
ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSE TO THE
PATTERN OF LIGHT ON THE BACK OF
THE EYE AND THIS IS A CLASSIC
INVERSE PROBLEM, A PROBLEM
WITHOUT A SOLUTION, THERE'S
SIMPLY NOT ENOUGH INFORMATION IN
THE RETINAL IMAGE TO COME TO A
UNIQUE CONCLUSION ABOUT THAT OR
TO PUT IT DIFFERENTLY, THERE'S
AN INFINITE NUMBER OF WORLDS
THAT COULD GIVE RISE TO ANY
PARTICULAR RETINAL IMAGE AND YET
I LOOK,A ROUND THE WORLD AND I
DON'T SUFFER FROM ANY AMBIGUITY.
I KNOW WHAT'S OUT THERE OR AT
LEAST I THINK I DO.
SO HOW DO WE DO THAT?
AND THE ANSWER IS CONTEXT,
CONTEXT IN THE THING THAT
ENABLESITOUS NARROW DOWN THE
POSSIBILITIES AND SEE SOMETHING
UNIQUE GIIVE A PARTICULAR
RETINAL IMAGE AND ANOTHER WAY TO
THINK ABOUT THAT IS THIS.
THIS IS WHAT I WOULD ARGUE IS 1
OF THE FUNDAMENTAL COMPUTATIONAL
PROCESSES THAT HAS TO HAPPEN IN
THE VISUAL CORTEX, WE HAVE LIGHT
ON THE INPUT AT EARLY STAGE OF
VISUAL PROCESSING, WE HAVE THIS
IMAGE BASED REPRESENTATION THAT
IS AS WE DETRECT CONTRAST AMONG
THESE DEMENTIONS THAT ARE
ILLUSTRATED HERE, THERE ARE
LIGHT AND THE RETINAL IMAGE ASK
WE HAVE THESE IMAGE BASED
REPRESENTATIONS AND YOU CAN FIND
THEM AT EARLY VISUAL PROCESSING
AND ULTIMATELY WHAT WE NEED IS A
SEAM BASED REPRESENTATION, WE
NEED TO KNOW WHAT'S OUT THERE IN
THE WORLD IN ORDER IT FOR US TO
INTERACT WITH IT BEHAVIORIALLY
AND AGAIN, THE ONLY WAY TO GET
THERE IS TO TAKE CONTEXT INTO
ACCOUNT.
NOW THIS IS NOT A NEW IDEA AT
ALL, IT GOES BACK AT LEAST TO
THIS GUY IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
19th CENTURY, THIS IS EARNEST
MOCK, MOCK WAS FAMOUS FOR MANY
THINGS THAT HAD NOTHING TO DO
WITH THE VISUAL SYSTEM BUT HE
WROTE A WONDERFUL LITTLE
MONOGRAPH ON THE ANALYSIS OF THE
SENSATIONS AND IN THAT
MONOGRAPH, HE DESCRIBES, THIS IS
A VERY LOW TECH VISUAL DEMO, I'M
NOT GOING TO DEMO IT FOR YOU, I
WON'T READ THE TEXT, I WILL
SIMPLY EXPLAIN IT TO YOU AND YOU
CAN TAKE A BUSINESS CARD, CAN
YOU DO THIS AT HOME, YOU CAN DO
THIS ANYWHERE ON A TRAIN, ON A
PLANE, IN A BOAT AND YOU FOLD A
BUSINESS CARD IN HALF SO IT'S
LIKE A TENT AND THEN HAVE YOU A
DIRECTED LIGHT SOURCE SHINING ON
1 SIDE OF THE TENT AND WHEN YOU
LOOK AT THIS WITH BOTH EYES
OPEN, YOU SEE THAT 1 SIDE IS
BRIGHTER THAN THE OTHER AS YOU
WOULD EXPECT BECAUSE THE LIGHT
IS SHINING ON IT AND YOU
INTERPRET IT THAT WAY
PERCEPTUALLY, YOU ATTRIBUTE THE
BRIGHTNESS ON 1 SIDE OF THE
FOLDED CARD TO BE BECAUSE THERE
WAS A SOURCE OF ILLUMINATION
SHINING ON IT.
NOW IF YOU CLOSE 1 EYE, YOU LOSE
BIN OCULAR DISPARITY CUES AND
YOU CAN BY STABLE, WHICH APPEARS
AS IMNEAGZ AND ON THOSE
CONDITIONS 1 SIDE IS BRIGHTER
THAN THE OTHER BECAUSE IN
REALITY THE LIGHT IS SHINING ON
IT AND YOU DON'T SEE THE LIGHT
SHINING ON IT ANY LONGER AND YOU
ATTRIBUTE THAT BRIGHTNESS TO
SOMETHING DIFFERENT.
YOU ATTRIBUTE THAT BRIGHTNESS ON
1 SIDE TO A CHANGE IN THE
SURFACE REFLECT ANTS OF THE
OTHER 2 SIDES OF THE CARD.
SO THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL PAUSE OF THAT
RETINAL STIMULUS IS HEAVILY
DEPENDENT ON YOUR INTERPRETATION
OF THE OBJECT WHICH IN TURN IN
THIS CASE IS BI OCULAR DISPARITY
CUES SO THERE ARE LOTS OF EMPLOY
ANDS OF THIS THING, YOU
ENCOUNTER THEM ALL THE TIME FROM
DAY-TO-DAY, THESE ARE 3 SIMPLE
EXAMPLES.
IT'S A HORIZONTAL GRAY BAR
THAT'S COMMON TO EACH OF THESE 3
FIGURES, THE 1 ON THE LEFT WOULD
SAY THAT LOOKS LIKE 2
TRANSPARENT FIGURES OVERLAPPING
1 ANOTHER AND THE GRAY BARS, THE
INTERSECTION, THE 1 IN THE
MIDDLE MOST PEOPLE SAY IT LOOKS
LIKE A PLANEAR SURFACE SO THEY
PAINT A GREAT STRIPE ACROSS IT
AND THE 1 ON THE RIGHT THE GRAY
BAR APPEARS TO BE A CONS QUEBS
AND RELATIVE OF THE LIGHT SOURCE
RELATIVE TO THE SURFACE OF IT
AND IT LOOKS LIKE A STEP, SO THE
POINT IS THAT YOU'RE
INTERPRETATION OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSE OF THOSE
STIMULI VARIES DRAMATICALLY
ACROSS THESE 3 CASES AND WHY IS
THAT?
WELL, IT'S THE CONTEXT, THE
CONTEXT DIFFERS IN THESE 3 CASES
AND SO, THIS IS A--AGAIN THIS IS
UBIQUITOUS IN HUMAN EXPERIENCE
AND IT'S A COMBINATORIAL
PROBLEM.
YOU CAN THINK ABOUT IT FORMALLY
THIS WAY AND JUST FOR SAKE OF
ARGUMENT, LET'S SUPPOSE WE HAVE
2 DIMENSIONS WITH WHAT WHOLE
SPACE, GENERICALLY, RIGHT NOW
AND 3 DIMENSIONS OF SOME
VARIATION THAT ALCOHOL FORM,
THERE ARE 6 POSSIBLE PERMIA
TAIPGZS OF THOSE VARIABLES
KHIHIGH ILLUSTRATED HERE AND YOU
CAN BUILD A SYSTEM, THIS CAPABLE
OF DETECTING ALL OF THOSE
COMBINATIONS, YOU COULD HARD
WIRE THIS, THIS WAS EFFECTIVELY,
THERE WAS A REFERENCE IN DWIGHT
TRAVIS' TALK YESTERDAY TO
[INDISCERNIBLE] THEORY ABOUT
THIS AND I THINK THIS IS WHAT
ALAN [INDISCERNIBLE] WAS
PROPOSING A FEW YEARS AGO, THE
LABELS LINES IF YOU WILL FOR
THESE COMBINATIONS AND FEATURES
IN THE WORLD BUT THAT'S NOT A
VERYENTIOUS FICIENT WAY TO BUILD
THE SYSTEM.
WHAT YOU WANT IS A SYSTEM IN
WHICH YOU HAVE THE A-VARIABLES,
WE WILL CALL THAT THE MIEMARY
VARIABLES, THAT'S SPACE AND FORM
IS THE CONTEXTURAL VARIABLE AND
THESE INTERACT DYNAMICALLY TO
CREATE OUTCOMES THAT SERVE A
PARTICULAR NEED.
SO YOU CAN HAVE A VALUE OF SPACE
A2 UNDER SOME CONDITIONS IN THE
PRESENCE OF B2 YIELDS A
PARTICULAR PERCEPT.
BUT IN ORDER TO DO THAT YOU HAVE
TO HAVE PARALLEL PROCESSING
STREAMS SO CAN YOU DYNAMICALLY
SHT ACT AND THAT'S EFFECTIVELY
WHAT THIS IS WITHOUT GOING INTO
DETAILTHE UNDERLYING WIRING AND
THIS IS A SYSTEM IN WHICH YOU
HAVE THESE PARALLEL CHANNELS AND
THERE ARE INTERACTIONS ALL ALONG
THE STREAM THAT ENABLE YOU TO
RECONSTRUCT THE ENVIRONMENTAL
CAUSE OF THE RETINAL STIMULUS.
SO THIS IS A MORE ELABORATED
VERSION OF THAT THAT WE
PUBLISHED A NUMBER OF YEARS AGO,
SO, AGAIN THESE ARE THE
PROPERTIES OF THE RETINAL IMAGE,
THE TYPES OF CONTRAST, PRESENCE
OF LIGHT AND THE RETINAL IMAGE
AND AT THE EARLY STAGES OF
VISUAL PROCESSING.
--HOW DOES THIS WORK?
>> SORRY, THAT'S THE WRONG
THING.
HOW DO I GO BACKWARDS?
ALL RIGHT, SO AT THE EARLY
STAGES OF VISUAL PROCESSING, WE
HAVE MECHANISMS THAT DETECT
CONTRAST ALONG THESE VARIOUS
DIMENSIONS, WE KNOW THIS IS
TRUE, LOTS OF EXPERIMENTS
DEMONSTRATING THAT AND THE TOP
PATHWAY ON HERE IS WHAT I WILL
CALL THE MOTION PATHWAY, THAT
WOULD BE IN THE DORSAL STREAM
AND ANY 1 OF THESE FORMS OF
CONTRAST CAN BE USED TO GENERATE
A PERCEPTIVE MOTION ISSUES LOTS
OF EXPERIMENTS THAT WE'VE DONE
OF THAT SORT AND WHAT YOU GET,
THE EARLY STAGE OF MOTION
PROCESSING ARE REPRESENTATIONS
OF RETINAL IMAGE MOTION COMING
FROM ANY 1 OF THOSE CUES BUT AS
I SAID ULTIMATELY WE WANT TO
HAVE A REPRESENTATION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL MOTION, THE THING
THAT'S ACTUALLY CAUSING THAT
RETINAL IMAGE AND THE ONLY WAY
TO GET THERE IS TO TAKE INTO
ACCOUNT CONTEXT, THAT CONTEXT
COMES FROM THE FORM PATHWAY
WHICH AGAIN IS FEEDING OFF THE
SAME SORT OF CONTRAST CUES BUT
USING THEM IN A DIFFERENT WAY
AND ULTIMATELY HAVE YOU A
REPRESENTATION OF MOTION OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL SURFACES AND THEN
FEIGNALLY, THE HIGHEST STAGE OF
PROCESSING WE POPULATION THE
SURFACE OF THAT MOVING OBJECT
WITH THINGS LIKE TEXTURE AND
SURFACE REFLECT ANTS AND COLOR.
SO THIS IS A GENERAL IDEA.
AND SO WITH THIS, IS OUR SORT OF
MOTIVATING FORCE.
WE SET OUT TO DO A WHOLE BURN OF
EXPERIMENTS AFTER I MOVED TO THE
SULK INSTITUTE IN THE LATE 1980S
AND WE DID THIS EXPERIMENT WHICH
I TELL YOU, I WILL SHOW YOU THIS
BECAUSE IT'S A PRETTY STRIKING
IF THE MOVIE WORKS IT'S A PRETTY
STRIKING DEMO BUT IT'S A
DRAMATIC DEMONSTRATION OF THE
EFFECT OF WHAT YOU WOULD PUT IN
THE FORM PATHWAY ON PERCEIVED
MOTION, NOW AND THIS WAS A
COLLABORATION OF [INDISCERNIBLE]
WHO'S IN THE PSYCHOLOGY
DEPARTMENT FROM UCSD WHICH IS
RIGHT ACROSS THE STREET FROM THE
SULK INSTITUTE.
I DON'T KNOW HOW TO MAKE PLAY
HERE, THIS IS A MOVIE.
SO BEFORE I PLAY THE MOVIE.
OH, COOL, DON'T PLAY IT YET,
BEFORE I PLAY THE MOVIE, IT'S
IMPORTANT THAT YOU FIXATE THAT
SPOT IN THE CENTER BECAUSE
MOVEMENTS OF THE EYES WILL
ACTUALLY AFFECT YOUR PERCEIVED
MOTION.
AND THE SECOND THING IS, THE
WHOLE THING WILL MOVE UPWARDS
AND IT WILL MOVE CONTINUOUSLY
UPREGARDS AND I WILL CHANGE THE
INTENSITY OF THE DIAMOND SHAPED
REGIONS, THE 1S THAT ARE SORT OF
BRIGHT WHITE RIGHT NOW, THEY
WILL CHANGE, THEY WILL GRADUALLY
GET DIMMER AND DIMMER UNTIL THEY
GET VERY DARK AND THEN I WILL
COURT AND JURY COME BACK AND
REPLAY OVER AND OVER AGAIN AND I
WANT YOU TO--I WILL EXPLAIN IT
TO YOU IN A MOMENT BUT JUST
EXPERIENCE THE PERCEPT OF
MOTION.
CAN WE MAKE IT GO NOW?
WHOEVER DID THAT A MOMENT AGO?
DID SOMEBODY MAKE IT?
OH, COOL, OKAY, SO I APOLOGIZE,
THIS WAS MADE IN THE LAST
CENTURY AND IT'S SORT OF LOW
TECHNOLOGY, IT'S SORT OF A
CLUNKY VIDEO.
NOW IT'S DARK, RIGHT, MOVES
UPWARDS AND SOMEBODY IN THERE IT
SLIDES, YOU SEE THE SLIDING, AND
SO THIS IS, I THINK THIS IS
PROFOUNDLY IMPORTANT BECAUSE THE
ONLY THING THAT'S CHANGE NOTHING
THE STIMULUS IS THE BRIGHTNESS
OF THAT LITTLE DIAMONDED SHAPED
INTERSECTION THERE THE REST OF
IT IS JUST MOTION UPWARDS BUT
YOU SEE IT IN 2 DISTINCT WAYS
AND NOW, I GUESS I CAN DO THIS.
SO THE EXPLANATION FOR THIS IS
ACTUALLY QUITE SIMPLE.
THIS IS WHAT WE CALL A PLAYED
PATTERN, SPECIAL TYPE OF PLAID
PATTERN AND WE CAN CONFIGURE IT
SUCH THAT THEY ARE IN PANEL C
AND E, IT'S CONFIGURED, THE
RULES OF PERCEPTUAL TRANSPARENT
HAVE BEEN WORKED OUT LONG AGO.
IT HAS TO DO WITH THE BRIGHTNESS
RATIOS BETWEEN REGIONS,A, B, C,
AND D.
AND THE LITTLE UNIT OF THE
PATTERN THERE AND THE C AND DOT
BOTTOM HERE ARE ILLUSTRATE THE
KAITION IN WHICH THAT
INTERSECTION LIEWMINENCE IS NOT
CONSISTENT WITH TRANSPARENCY AND
YOU SLEEP APNEA AND OBESITYY
THIS THING MOVING UPWARDS, THE
CASE IN THE MIDDLE AND ALL WE'VE
DONE IS VARY THE LUMINOUS OF
THAT REGION A, THE CASE IN THE
BOTTOM MIDDLE THERE, PANEL D IS
1 IN WHICH THEY'RE TRANSPARENT
IN SLIDING ACROSS FROM 1
ANOTHER, THEY DID A WHOLE SERIES
EXPERIMENTS ON THIS, I WON'T
BELABOR THIS IS THE POINT THAT
PEOPLE SEE THIS WHAT'S VARYINGOT
X-AXIS THERE IS THE LUMINOUS OF
THE INTERSECTIONS AND Y-AXIS IS
THE REPORTS OF WHAT WE CALL
COMPONENT MOTION, THAT IS THE
SLIDING MOTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL
COMPONENTS AND IT'S A PRETTY
PRONOUNCED EFFECT AND VERY
CONSISTENT ACROSS SUBJECTS.
SO THAT'S A DEMONSTRATION
IMPORTANTLY OF THE INFLUENCE OF
FORM ON MOTION PERCEPTION AND WE
WERE ALSO CURIOUS ABOUT THE
NEURAL SUBSTRATES TO THIS AND I
HAD DONE A WHOLE LOT BY THIS
POINT, A WHOLE LOT OF RECORDING
FROM THE AREA M. T. WHICH HAS
MOTION SENSITIVE CELLS THAT
BEHAVE LIKE THIS, DIRECTION
CURVE PLOTTING ON THE POLAR
ACCESS AND THIS LIKES IT UP AND
TO THE RIGHT, THIS IS THE
HISTOGRAMS AROUND THE PERIMETER
OF THE POLAR PLOT SO THE RADIAL
ACCESS =S THE SPIKE RATE AND THE
DIRECTION OF MOTION, SO THIS IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF THE VAST
MAJORITY OF CELLS AND M. T. AND
WE ASK WHAT THESE DO IF WE
PRESENT THESE PLATPATTERNS THAT
ARE EITHER TRANSPARENT OR NOT
AND THE GRAPHOT LEFT IS ANOTHER
DIRECTION TO A CURVE FROM M. T.
THIS 1 PLOT INDEED CAR TEEGZ
COORDINATES AND THIS CELL LIKES
MOTION ROUGHLY 90-DEGREES THERE
AND THERE'S A BIT OF RESPONSE IN
THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION AND SO
WHAT WE DID WAS WE TOOK THAT AS
THE 90-DEGREES MEASUREMENT
THERE, ACTUALLY IT'S ABOUT
135-DEGREES, WE TOOK THAT AS THE
PREFERRED DIRECTION OF THE CELL
AND THEN PRESENTED THESE
PATTERNS SO THAT THEY'RE ALL
COHERENT MOVING ON THE
DIRECTION AND THAT'S SHOWNOT
RIGHT HAND SIDE OF THE SLIDE,
THAT SPIKE RATE IS A FUNCTION OF
THE PATTERN DIRECTION, SO IF THE
PATTERN DIRECTION--SORRY, IF THE
PATENTSERN WAS NONTRANSPARENT
WHICH YOU CAN SEE FROM THE
SYMBOLS THERE, IF IT'S
NONTRANSPARENT THEN THIS THING
ELICITS A STRONG RESPONSE IN THE
CELL'S PREFERRED DIRECTION,
HOWEVER IF IT'S TRANSPARENT THEN
YOU GET A RESPONSE TO THE
INDIVIDUAL MOVING COMPONENTS, IN
OTHER WORDS THESE CELLS DM M. T.
ARE RESPOND NOTHING A WAY THAT
MIRRORS PRECEPTION UNDER THESE
CONDITIONS THAT THEY'RE
MODULATED BY FORM IN A WAY
THAT'S CONSISTENT WITH WHAT WE
SEE PERCEPTUALLY.
SO, WITH THAT AS A STARTING
POINT WE WENT ON TO HAVE A WHOLE
BUNCH OF EXPERIMENTS TO GET AT
THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS
ASSOCIATED WITH AND THE
GENERALITY OF THIS, AND WILL
TELL YOU ABOUT THIS 1 QUICKLY.
THESE ARE 2 VERY SIMPLE WORDS,
BUT THE WORLD AT TOP HAS A
SINGLE OBJECT IN IT, IT'S A
DIAGNOLLALLY ORIENTED BAR THAT'S
MIGHT HAVING STRAIGHT DOWN AND
THAT'S THE RETINAL IMAGE
GENERATED BY THAT BAR, SHOWNOT
LEFT THERE, IT'S EXACTLY WHAT
YOU WOULD PREDICT IT TO BE, NOW
THE WORLD AT THE BOTTOM IS
SLIGHTLY MORE COMPLICATED.
IT HAS A LONGER ANGLED BAR THAT
IS MOVING TO THE RIGHT WITH THIS
ORIENTATION BUT IN THIS CASE,
THEY ARE PANELS DOWN TO THE
GROUND SO YOU DON'T SEE THE ENDS
OF THE BAR, SO YOU SEE THESE
OCCLUDED POINTS AND THE RETINAL
IMAGE GENERATED BY THAT WORLD IS
DIFFICULT BY THE WORLD ATOP WITH
THE EXCEPTION OF THE FACT THAT
IT HAS THESE 2 FOREGROUND
INCLUDING PANELS, THE MOTION IS
THE SAME IN THOSE 2 CASES AND
YET YOU WOULD SEE IF YOU CAN
DEMONSTRATE IT HERE, YOU WOULD
SEE THIS HERETICALLY, YOU WOULD
SEE THE 1 AT THE BOTTOM MOVING
DOWN AND RIGHT, YOU SEE THE 1
MOVING TOP AND DOWN.
SO HOW IS THAT?
WELL THE ANSWER OF COURSE AND
CONTEXT, CONTEXT HERE IS YOU
HAVE THESE OCCLUDING PANELS.
WE THEN SET OUT, BECAUSE IT'S
SORT OF HARD TO DO EXPERIMENTS
WITH THAT KIND OF
CONFIGURURATION, WE DESIGNED A
STIMULUS FOR HISTORICAL REASONS
WHICH I REGRET TODAY IS CALLED
THE BARBARA DIAMOND, AND I'LL
BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THIS TO YOU,
UNFORTUNATELY I CAN'T SHOW YOU
THE VIDEO BECAUSE I DIDN'T BRING
THE RED/GREEN GLASSES AND IT
REQUIRINGS STEREO BUT YOU WILL
GET THE POINT ANYWAY.
SO THERE IS A PATTERN OF STRIPES
IN THE DIAMOND REGION, WE ARE
TALKING ABOUT THE PANEL ON THE
LEFT NOW.
WE WILL SEE IF I CAN USE THIS
PANEL ON THE LEFT HERE AND THEN
THERE ARE 4 SURROUNDING PANELS
AND THEN WE MANIPULATED THE
DEPTH PLANE OF THOSE PANELS WITH
2 CONFIGURURATIONS SHOWN HERE
AND IMPORTANTLY THE STRIPES IN
THE CENTER, CAN ONLY
MOVE--WHOOPS--THE STRIPES IN THE
CENTER CAN ONLY MOVE TO THE
RIGHT OR THE LEFT PURPLEN
DICKULAR TO THEIR ORIENTATION.
BUT WE CREATED 2
CONFIGURURATIONS OF THIS IN
WHICH WE MANIPULATED THE
DISPARITY CUES SO THERE ARE 2,
TALKING ABOUT THE UPPER RIGHT 1
AND I WAS WAS AFRAID I PUSHED E
WRONG BUTTON.
NOW WHEN YOU CREATE A STIMULUS
LIKE THIS, OUR PREDICTION WAS
THERE ARE 2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
LINE GENERATED HERE.
THERE ARE LINE TERMINATORS THAT
ARE ADJAC TONIGHT FAR PANELS AND
THESE ARE INTERPRETED AS REAL
LINE TERMINATORS, WE CALL THEM
INTRINSIC TERMINATORS BECAUSE
THE REGION IS DROPPING OFF INTO
SPACE BEYOND THAT AND THAT'S
TRUE ON BOTH SIDES OF THAT, SO
ALONG THIS PANEL AS WELL, NOW
ALONG THE NEAR PANELS, AGAIN
THESE NEAR PEANLS ARE IN A PLANE
IN FRONT OF THE STRIPES SO THOSE
LINE TERMINATORS ARE INTERPRETED
AS AN ACCIDENT OF OCCLUSION.
WE HAVE NO REASON TO BELIEVE
THAT THAT'S A REAL END OF THOSE
LINES AND WE HYPOTHESIZED THEY
WOULD BE TREATED DIFFERENTLY
BECAUSE OF THE 3 DIMENSIONAL
INTERPRETATION OF THE OBJECT AND
SO WE DID A BUNCH OF EXPERIMENTS
TO TEST THAT IDEA, AND THE 1 AT
BOTTOM IS JUST THE OPPOSITE
CONFIGURATION, GREEN IS NOT
SIGNIFICANT TO THIS, IT'S JUST
TO INDICATE THAT WE PREDICT THE
MOTION TO THE RIGHT, WE PREDICT
IT TO BE ALONG THE DIAGONAL,
THAT IS IT'S IN THE DIRECTION OF
THE INTRINSIC TERMINATORS, THE
EXTRINSIC TERMINATOR MOTION IS
DISCARDED, IT'S MEANING LESS AS
FAR AS PERCEPTUAL INTERPRETATION
OF THE WORLD IS CONCERNED.
THAT'S THE PREDICTION, WE DID
EXPERIMENTS TO TEST THIS, USING
THIS AS A STIMULUS I CAN'T SHOW
YOU, I CAN PLAY IT BUT YOU
WOULDN'T BE ABLE TO SEE IT
BECAUSE YOU DON'T HAVE THE 3D
GLASSES BUT IT'S A PRETTY
STRIKING EFFECT, IF YOU CAN FREE
FUSE AND YOU CAN FUSE THOSE
THINGS, I WILL LEAVE IT UP FOR A
SECOND FOR ANYBODY WHO CAN
PREFUSE, CAN YOU SEE THIS WITH
THE 2 BACK PANELS AND THE 2
FOREGROND PANELS.
AND WE DID EXPERIMENTS AND I
LEFT OUT THE SLIDE WITH THE
PSYCHOPHYSICAL DATA BUT NORMAL
HUMAN SUBJECTS SEE IT EXACTLY
THE WAY WE PREDICTED, THAT IS WE
SEE IT MOVING ALONG THE DIAGONAL
AND THIS IS WHAT WE EXPECTED
NEUROWNALLY, AND WEB CONNECTED
PUT THIS IN THE AREA OF M. T. SO
ON THE LEFT IS THE PREDICTION,
THIS IS THE HIP THE--THISICAL
DIRECTION, TESTED USING
UNAMBIGUOUSLY MOVING, AND THIS
IS MOVING OBVIOUSLY IN EACH OF 8
DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS SO YOU SEE
IT THEIR'S A TUNING SORT AND
LIKES DOWN TO THE RIGHT AND WE
CALL THAT THE FAVORED DIRECTION
OF MOTION, THE 90-DEGREES AWAY
FROM THAT, WE CALL THIS THE
UNFAVORED DIRECTION BECAUSE IT'S
SMALLER AND THEN WE PLACE THESE
2 STIMULI SUCH THAT 1
CORRESPONDS TO THE FAVORED
DIRECTION AND THE OTHER
CORRESPONDS TO PERCEIVED MOTION
IN THE UNFAVORED DIRECTION AND
THE PREDICTION WAS THAT THE--WE
GET A LARGE RESPONSE WHEN THIS
THING IS PERCEIVED TO MOVE IN
THE FAVORED DIRECTION OF THE
CELL AND THE SMALL RESPONSE WHEN
THINGS PERCEIVE TO MOVE IN THE
UNFAVORED DIRECTION AND I--YEAH,
I'M SORRY I LEFT OUT THE DAT
FIGURE BUT WE DID THIS IN M. T.
AND IT'S A PRETTY STRIKING
EFFECT.
THE DATA FIGURE UNFORTUNATELY IS
A REALLY COMPLICATED MESSY
FIGURE SO I FIGURED I WOULD TELL
YOU THE RESULT WHICH IS THAT THE
CELLS DO WHAT'S PREDICTED RIGHT
HERE.
THAT IS THAT THEY'RE RESPONDING
IN A WAY THAT IS DIFFERENT FROM
THE PHYSICAL MOTION OF THIS
THING ON THE RETINA BUT
CORRESPONDS TO THE PERCEIVED
MOTION OF THE STIMULUS, SO THAT
WE'VE ACHIEVED--EXCUSE ME--WE
ACHIEVE THAD TRANSFORMATION FROM
A REPRESENTATION OF THE RETINAL
LOCATION NAT IMAGE MOTION TO A
REPRESENTATION VISUAL SEEN
MOTION USING THE STIMULUS.
THIS OUR INTERPRATATION AGAIN
AND YOU WILL NOTICE THAT IT HAS
2 PROCESSING STREAMS, AND THE
TOP IS THE PROCESSING STREAM FOR
MOTION, THIS IS THE WORLD WE'RE
TALKING ABOUT, THIS IS THE
PROCESSING STREAM FOR MOTION AT
THE EARLIEST LEVEL OF AREA B1 WE
HAVE REPRESENTATIONS OF THE
ELEMENTS ON THIS, THE
REPRESENTATION OF THE RETINAL
IMAGE MOTION THAT IS, ON THE
BOTTOM, IN THE FORM PATHWAY, WE
HAVE SOME NECKANISM THAT
EXTRACTS THE MEANING OF THESE
CRITICAL FEATURES, THAT IS THE
INTRINSIC FEATURES, VERSUS THE
EXTRINSIC FEATURES AND
ULTIMATELY THAT INFORMATION TO
SOME FEEDBACK AND THAT IS THE
BASIS UPON WHICH WE INTEGRATE
THESE THINGS, SUCH THAT ULTIMATE
LIE, WE PERCEIVE A FORMER
REPRESENTATION OF THE THING
MOVING IN THE VISUAL SCENE AND
RATHER THAN THE THINGS MOVING ON
THE RETINAL IMAGE, RIGHT.
YOU PROBABLY CAN'T EVEN SEE THAT
ON THE TOP THERE, I GOT OBSESSED
WITH THIS AND I DID A WHOLE
BUNCH OF EXPERIMENTS LOOKING AT
DIFFERENT EEIVETS OF THIS THING,
CONTEXTURAL CUES ON MOTION
PROCESSING AND WE DID A WHOLE
SERIES ON THE INFLUENCE OF COLOR
ON MOTION PROCESSING, AGAIN,
COLOR COMING FROM THE FORM
PATHWAY AND AFFECTING MOTION AND
THESE ARE JUST EXAMPLES, SO THE
1 ON TOP WAS A PRETTY STRIKING
EFFECT WHERE WE USE THESE,
UNFORTUNATELY I DIDN'T INCLUDE A
FIGURE BUT WE USE THESE CLASSIC
RANDOM DOT PATTERNS WHERE YOU
CAN BURY THE SIGNAL, THE
PROPORTION OF DOTS MOVING
COHERENTLY IN 1 DIRECTION WHICH
MANY PEOPLE HAVE USED TO
CHARACTERIZE MOTION PROCESSING
CIRCUITS AND THE CORTEX, AND WE
MADE A SIMPLE MANIPULATION OF
THAT, WE JUST MADE THE SIGNAL
DOTS A DIFFERENT COLOR FROM THE
NOISE DOTS.
IT WAS AN OBVIOUS PREDICTION, IT
SHOULD BE A LOT EASIER, YOUR
THRESHOLDS FOR DETECTION OF THE
COHERENT MOTION SHOULD BE A LOT
LOWER IF THOSE DOTS ARE
DISTINGUISHED BY COLOR AND
INDEED, THEY WERE AND WE WENT ON
TO FIND THE SIM THING WAS TRUE
IN AREA M. T. WITH MOTION
SENSITIVE NEURONS.
SO, AT SOME POINT WE STARTED TO
MOVE OUT OF THAT LITTLE BOX AND
START THINKING MORE BROADLY
ABOUT THIS AND ABOUT THE
INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT AND THAT'S
WHAT THIS IS MEANT TO INDICATE.
THIS IS SIMPLY A SORT OF
SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF SPACE
TIME AND AN EVENT IN SPACE TIME.
SO SOMETHING IS HAPPENING, THESE
ARE 2 AXIS IN SPACE AT TIME, AND
SOMETHING IS HAPPENING AT SPACE
TIME, THERE'S AN EVENT, DOESN'T
MATTER WHAT THE EVENT IS.
WE CAN PULL OUT A SLICE OF TIME,
SHOWN OVER HERE AND WE CAN LOOK
AT THAT EVENT.
AND EVERYTHING I'VE BEEN TALKING
ABOUT THUS FAR IS WHAT I WOULD
CALL SPATIAL CONTEXT, JUST THE
OTHER STUFF THAT HAPPENS TO BE
IN THE VISUAL SCENE AT THE SAME
TIME THAT'S INFLUENCING OUR
INTERPRETATION OF THAT
PARTICULAR FEATURE IN SPACE TIME
AND AS I SHOWED YOU, SEVERAL
DEMONSTRATIONS, THESE ARE PRETTY
PRONOUNCED EFFECTS BUT WE CAN
ALSO LOOK AT WHAT WE CALL
TEMPORAL CONTEXT WHICH IS JUST
AN EVENT FOR MEMORY, BUT WE CAN
SEE WHAT PREE SEEDS DIFFERENT
LOCATIONINGS IN SPACE PRECEDES
DIFFERENT PARTICULAR TARGET
EVENT.
SO WE DID A BUNCH OF EXPERIMENTS
TO LOOK AT THIS AND I CAN
DEMONSTRATE, I THINK THE NEXT
SLIDE IS A SIMPLE DEMO, SHI
KNOW, SORRY, THE NEXT SLIDE IS
THIS, THIS IS A HYPOTHESIS ABOUT
HOW THESE KINDS OF TEMPORAL
CONTEXT CUES HAVE MANIFEST
THEMSELVES, SO THIS, IS A VERY
SIMPLE VISUAL CORTEX, HAS 1
NEURON THAT REPRESENTS THINGS
THAT WE ACTUALLY PERCEIVE AND
THERE HAVE BEEN MANY, MANY
DEMONSTRATIONS THAT THERE ARE
SUCH CELLS IN THE CORTEX OVER
THE PAST FEW DECADES AND WE KNOW
THAT ULTIMATELY THOSE CELLS GET
INPUT FROM THE RETINA AND IT'S
THE PATHWAY THAT'S MOST HEAVILY
STUDIED BUT WE ALSO KNOW THAT
THEY GET INPUT ULTIMATELY COMING
BACK DOWN FROM THE MEMORY STORE,
FROM REPRESENTATIONS FROM THINGS
WE'VE SEEN BEFORE AND WE KNOW TO
BE TRUE ABOUT THE WORLD AND SO,
OUR PERCEPTUAL EXPERIENCE AS A
CONSTRUCT, IS A COLLABORATION
BASED ON TOAZ 2 INPUTS AND SO
THAT'S TRUE MOST OF THE TIME AND
FOLLOWS YOUR PERCEPTUAL STATA
ANY POINT IN TIME FALLS ON A
CONTINUUM ON PEER STIMULUS AT 1
END AND PURE IMAGERY AT 1 END
AND MOST PEOPLE ARE NOT AWARE OF
THIS BUT AT SOME PLACE IN THE
MIDDLE YOU ARE NOT PERCEIVING
THIS STUFF ON THE RETINA AND I
WILL SHOW YOU A DEMONSTRATION OF
THIS AND I WILL SHOW, THE NEXT
SLIDE ISA AN ABSTRACT FIGURE AND
I'VE SHOWN THIS TO THOUSANDS OF
PEOPLE AND YOU MAY HAVE SEEN IT
BEFORE IF YOU KNOW WHAT IT IS,
JUST RAISE YOUR HAND, DON'T CALL
IT OUT BECAUSE YOU WILL GIVE IT
AWAY TO ANYBODY ELSE.
ANYBODY THINK YOU KNOW WHAT IT
IS?
I GET LOTS OF SORT OF COOKIE
RESPONSES TO THIS.
OKAY, SO I WILL SHOW YOU 1 OTHER
PIECE OF INFORMATION, THAT
REEITHER [INDISCERNIBLE] OR
JESUS DEPENDING ON YOUR PRIORS,
NOW I WILL GO BACK TO THE
ORIGINAL, AND THOSE WHO DIDN'T
SEE ANYTHING BEFORE, YOU SEE
SOMETHING NOW?
SO I DIDN'T ASK YOUR PERMISSION
BUT CHANGED YOUR BRAINS AND I
THINK THIS IS PROBABLY PERINENT.
IN WIDE RECEIVER I SHOW YOU THAT
I SHOULD SAY THAT STIMULUS IS
OBVIOUS.
YOU DON'T WANT TO BE DOWN HERE,
YOU DON'T WANT TO RELYOT
STIMULUS BECAUSE YOU YOU WILL BE
CONFUSED YOU DON'T KNOW WHAT TO
DO WITH THE WORLD IN FRONT OF
YOU ON THOSE CONDITIONS, YOU
ALSO DON'T WANT TO BE STUCK OVER
HERE IN THE PURE IMAGERY WHERE
EVERYTHING'S COMING BA BEING
FROM MEMORY AND THEN YOU'RE JUST
HALLUCINATING.
SOPHISTICATED SO THIS IS WHAT
YOU STRIVE FOR.
JAMES CALLED THIS THE VICTORIOUS
SIMULATION OF THE NEW THAT IS
YOU IDENTIFY SOMETHING
CONFOUNDING LIKE THAT STIMULUS
THERE AND YOU TRY VERY HARD TO
RELATE IT TO SOMETHING YOU'VE
SEEN BEFORE AND EVENTUALLY YOU
DO AND THAT'S THE VICTORIOUS
ASSIMILATION.
SO WE DID AN EXPERIMENT AND THE
EXPERIMENT WAS DONE BY ANNIA
[INDISCERNIBLE] WHO WAS A POST
DOC IN MY LAB AT THE TIME AND IT
INVOLVED TRAINING MONKEYS ON A
NONIDENTICAL MATCH TO SAMPLE
TASK.
WHICH MONKEYS CAN DO, WE TRAIN
THEM TO ASSOCIATE MOTION STIMULI
AND I SHOULD SAY THESE STIMULI
ARE IN A FIXED WINDOWOT SCREEN
OF A VIDEO MONITOR, THEY KEEP
CONTINUOUSLY MOVE NOTHING 1
DIRECTION OR THE OTHER AND THEN
WE HAD THE ANIMALS LEARN THE
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THAT AND THE
SHAPE THAT'S NOT MOVING AT ALL
AND WE CHOSE ARROWS, IT COULD BE
ANYTHING, COLORS, LETTERS OF THE
ALPHABET, WE THOSE ARROWS
BECAUSE THAT WAS EASY TO KEEP
TRACK OF SO THE MONKEYS LOSE
THIS GRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION THAT
MOST LEARN BY THE TIME THEY'RE
5, WHICH IS THAT ARROWS
CORRESPOND TO A PARTICULAR
DIRECTION.
AND THEY LEARNED THIS AND AFTER
THEY LEARN THIS WE WENT AND
RECORDED FROM CELLS IN AREA M.
T. AND THIS IS A SLIGHTLY
COMPLICATED SLIDE BUT I WILL
WALK YOU THROUGH TH SIMPLE
PARTS.
BUT ON THE TOP HERE, TOP ROW, IS
DATA FROM, THE MOTION STIMULI,
SO WE SHOWED 4 DIFFERENT MOTION
STIMULI THAT WERE ASSOCIATED
WITH 4 DIFFERENT ARROWS AND YOU
CAN SEE THE CELL, THESE
ARE--SORRY--THESE ARE RAFTERS ON
THE TOP HERE AND THESE ARE
CUMULATIVE HISTOGRAMS ON THE
BOTTOM SO YOU CAN SEE THE
MOTION.
THIS A SPARSELY SAMPLED
DIRECTION TUNING CURVE ON THE
RIGHT HERE FOR MOTION AND YOU
CAN SEE THE CELL, WE JUST TOOK
THE VECTOR AVERAGE OF THAT AND
THE CELL LIKE MOTION DOWN TO THE
LEFT AND THEN WE--THIS IS WHAT
KNOCKED OUR SOCKS OFF, WE SHOWED
THE SHAPE STIMULI AND WE SHOWED
THE ARROWS POINTING IN 4
DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS AND NOBODY
HAD EVER FOUND THESE CELLS
RESPOND TO STUFF LIKE THIS, IN
FACT, WE TESTED OUR ANIMALS
BEFORE TRAINING, AND DIDN'T GET
ANYTHING TO THESE KINDS OF
STIMULI, THEY'RE NOT MOVING AND
THEN AFTER THIS, WE WILL FIND
THAT THESE CELLS ARE NOT ONLY
RESPONSIVE TO THE STIMULI BUT
SELECTIVE FOR THE DIRECTION OF
WHICH THE ARROW IS POINTING SO
YOU CAN SEE THAT THERE'S A
PRETTY ROBUST RESPONSE TO THE
DOWNWARD ARROW AND THE OTHER 2,
THESE ARE THE AVERAGE RESPONSES
TO THOSE 4 ON THIS TUNING CURVE
OVER HERE.
AND IF YOU TAKE THE VECTOR, AND
THE AVERAGE RESPONSES ARE
SMALLER ON AVERAGE, THEN YOU GET
TO THE MOTION, BUT THE VECTOR
AVERAGE IS ALMOST IDENTICAL TO
THAT, AND WHEN YOU GET FOR THE
DIRECTION TUNING CURVE.
AND THE ONLY WAY THIS CAN HAPPEN
IS AN INFORMED PATHWAY
REPRESENTING SHAPES THAT'S FEED
BEING BACK BECAUSE THIS IS
TEMPORAL CONTEXTURAL INTERACTION
FEEDING BACK ON THE PATHWAY.
IN OTHER WORDS WE HAVE A
DEMONSTRATION THAT IS ACTUALLY
AFFECTING THAT IN WAYS YOU WOULD
ENTIRELY EXPECT THAT IT WOULD.
OUR INTERPRETATION BY THE WAY OF
THIS IS THAT THEY'RE IN THE
MIND'S EYE, VISUAL LEARNING IS
HARD TO STUDY BUT BECAUSE THIS
IS AN OVERLY TRAINED
ASSOCIATION, THE MONKEY IS--IF
WE TRAINED OW THIS EXTENSIVELY
TRAIN ASSOCIATION THEN YOU WILL
WHEN I SHOW YOU 1 STIMULUS, WHEN
I SHOW YOU YOUR GRAND MRPGHT'S
CHAIR, YOU WILL THINK ABOUT YOUR
GRANDMOTHER IN THE SAME WAY THE
MONKEY SEES THE DOWNWARD ARROW,
HE WILL THINK IN HIS MIND'S EYE
ABOUT THE DOWNWARD MOTION WE
PREDICT AND THAT'S THE REASON
WHY M. T. NEURONS ARE THE
SUBSTRATE FOR MOTION PERCEPTION
ARE ACTIVATED UNDER THESE
CONDITIONS.
SO AGAIN I WAS TRYING TO THINK
MORE BROADLY ABOUT THIS AND I
STILL RUN THE LAB AND WE DO
STHEEZ EXPERIMENTS BUT I SLIPPED
OFF THE INTRID AND APPLIED LOGIC
TO OTHER PROBLEMS THIS IS A LOCK
HISTORY TO THAT BUT I ENDED UP
DOING A WHOLE BUNCH OF WORK ON
THE ROLE OF CONTEXT AND THIS MAY
SEEM LIKE A NONSEC WITTER BUT
IT'S THE SAME SORT OF PRINCIPLES
THAT WE LEARN FROM BOTH THE
PSYCHOPHYSICAL AND THE
NEUROBIOLOGICAL STUDIES BEING
APPLIED TO REAL PROBLEMS IN THE
REAL WORLD SO THIS IS 1 OF THE
THINGS I'M MOST PROUD OF IN MY
CAREER, I CHAIRED A COMMITTEE
FOR THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES IN WHICH WE LOOKEDDA
THE PROBLEM OF EYEWITNESS
IDENTIFICATION AND CONTEXTURAL
BIAS IS A HUGE PROBLEM IN
EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATION AND
MANY PEOPLE GET WRONGLY
IDENTIFIED AND WRONGLY WHICH 1
OF JUST CAME OUT AND THIS PAPER
CAME OUT IN PNAS AND YOU WILL
NOTE THAT I EVEN GOT INTO AGAIN
I SLIPPED OFF THE GRID HERE AND
GOT INTO EXTRA TERRESTRIALS,
WHICH IS ENORMOUS LITERATURE ON
CITING EXTRA TERRESTRIALS, IT'S
FUN TO WRITE, THE BOOK'S NOT
QUITE OUT YET.
AT WHICH POINT HAD A PROFOUND
IMPACT AND EVERYTHING I'VE DONE
SINCE THAT TIME AND AND THIS HAS
TO DO WITH PERSONAL IV THERAPY
DISTRICTS AND LESLIE'S BLUNTNESS
AND CRITICISM, I HAVE ON A FRIEW
OCCASIONS BEEN IN SYMPOSIA WITH
LESLIE WHO WERE BOTH SPEAKERS
AND 1 OF THEM WAS AT THE SULK
SYSTEM, AND IT WAS A SYMPOSIUM
OVER PROCESSING AND SPEAKERS
OVER SEVERAL DAYS AND WE WERE
THE HIGH END SENSORY PROCESSING
AND ALL THESE PEOPLE WORKING ON
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS ALL THE WAY
UP TO THE CORTEX AND I GAVE MY
TALK AND THEN WE WENT TO LUNCH
SO LESLIE SAYS, IN MY TALK I
MAKE REFERENCE TO EXPERIMENTS
THAT WE'VE DONE BUT I'M NOT
GOING TO TALK ABOUT THEM.
JUST OFFHAND COMMENT AND IT
COMES OUT SORT OF INSTINCTIVELY
AND THERE'S NO GOOD PURPOSE TO
IT BUT LESLIE SAYS, THAT WAS A
GREAT TALK, TOM.
DON'T EVER TELL YOUR AUDIENCE
ABOUT EXPERIMENTS YOU ARE NOT
GOING TO TALK ABOUT.
AND SO I--IT WAS IMPORTANT
LESSON AND I THINK I SOMETIMES
FAIL BUT I TRY TO KEEP THAT IN
MIND.
AND THERE WAS 1 OTHER THAT ALEX
MENTIONED EARLIER, I HAVE OVER
THE PAST 20 SOMETHING YEARS, ON
5 OCCASIONS I WAS INVITED TO
REVIEW LESLIE'S LAB HERE AT THE
NIH AND AS RESULT OF THIS I
BECAME A LESLIE UNG ERLEIDER
SPECIALIST AND I'M SERIOUS
BECAUSE AND THIS HAS BEEN SAID
BY MANY PEOPLE THAT LESLIE WOULD
PUT SO MUCH CARE INTO THESE
PRESENTATIONS BOTH WRITTEN
PRESENTATIONS AND THE ORAL
PRESENTATIONS FROM HER AND
VARIOUS LAB MEMBERS AND IT WAS
REALLY STRIKING, THIS IS REALLY
COMPLICATED WORK INVOLVING A
WHOLE BUNCH OF DIFFERENT
DISCIPLINES COMBINED TOGETHER IN
NOVEL WAYS AND IT WAS JUST--IT
WAS A GREAT GIG.
JUST A PIECE OF CAKE TO
UNDERSTAND THIS AND I REALLY
ENJOYED IT.
AND I THIS IS A QUOTE FROM 1 OF
MY MANY REVIEWS OF HER
LABORATORY.
COLLECTIVELY THESE PROJECTS
STAND AMONG OF THE MOST FAR
REACHING SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH IN
THE FIELD OF COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE, THAT'S A SNIPIT
BUT THE POINT IS THERE'S A HUGE
BODY OF WORK THAT BACKS UP THAT
CLAIM AND SO I WAS AS ALEX SAID
I WAS THERE TO BE HER ADVOCATE.
ANOTHER REALLY STRIKING THING
WHICH MANY OF YOU KNOW ABOUT AND
HAVE SPOKEN ABOUT OVER THE LAST
2 DAYS IS LESLIE'S COMMITMENT TO
LEADERSHIP, AND THIS WAS SO
EVIDENT IN ALL THESE REVIEWS IN
HER LAB, HER ABILITY TO LEAD A
TEAM, A COMPLEX TEAM WITH
MULTIFACETED WITH LOTS OF PEOPLE
AND THE COMMITMENT SHE GAVE TO
THE TRAINING, PART OF THIS
REVIEW WAS WE MET WITH ALL THE
PEOPLE.
I MET PROBABLY WITH MANY OF YOU
IN THIS GROUP WHO WORKED WITH
LESLIE OVER THE PAST
20-SOMETHING YEARS AND IT WAS
REALLY STRIKING AND SO, LAST
THING I WANT TO SAY IS THAT
THERE'S A LOT OF PEOPLE IN THE
FIELD OF NEUROSCIENCE SO IT'S A
PRETTY BIG BOOMING ACADEMIC
DISCIPLINE, A JUGGERNAUT OF
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH BUT THERE
ARE NOT MANY PEOPLE LIKE LESLIE
AND WE'RE ALL FORTUNATE TO HAVE
HAD THE CHANCE TO KNOW HER AND
LEARN FROM HER.
[ APPLAUSE ]
THANK YOU.
>> I DON'T KNOW IF YOU CAN HEAR
ME WITH THE MASK, I LOVE THAT
STUFF ON VISUAL ILLUSIONS THAT
YOU WERE SORT OF TALKING ABOUT
INCLUDING LIKE THE CONTEXT
DEPENDENCY, WHEN I WAS ABOUT
THIS TALL, BEFORE I VISITED YOUR
LAB BRIEFLY, I HAVE DONE
EXPERIMENTS WITH [INDISCERNIBLE]
AND [INDISCERNIBLE] CAMPBELL AT
CAME BRIDGE [INDISCERNIBLE]
MONITOROCULAR RIVALRY, DIFFERENT
FROM THE BINOCULAR RIVALRY THAT
PEOPLE HAVE STUDIED INCLUDING
[INDISCERNIBLE] HERE AND
[INDISCERNIBLE].
BUT MONITOROCULAR RIVALRY, YOU
DON'T CHANGE ANYTHING IN THE
STIMULUS, IT'S SORT OF A LOW
CONTRAST GRADING THAT IS SORT
OF--CONSISTS OF 2 DIFFERENT
COLORS, AND WHEN YOU STAIR AT
IT, LONG ENOUGH, IT STARTS TO
RIVAL BETWEEN THOSE 2 COLORS.
WE CAN ALSO CHANGE THE
ORIENTATION OF IT, WITH THE
ORIENTATIONS, AND YOU WERE
WORKING ON THIS FOR A WHILE AND
GOT IT PUBLISHED AND I DON'T
THINK AS FAR AS I KNOW, I DON'T
THINK ANYBODY HAS LOOKED AT THE
NEUROPACES OF THAT IN MONKEYS OR
ANYTHING LIKE THAT.
ARE YOU AWARE OF?
>> I'M FAMILIAR WITH THE
PHENOMENON AND IT'S QUITE
INTERESTING, I TAKE IT TO BE
SOME SORT OF DIFFERENTIAL
ADAPTATION OF THE LOW LEVEL OF
RECEPTORS FOR THAT STIMULI,.
>> SO THAT'S WHAT YOU SAID IN
THE PAPER.
>> YEAH, BUT I'M NOT FAMILIAR
WITH ANYBODY WHO WORKED ON THAT
SINCE THAT TIME.
>> YEAH, THIS IS THE SAME AS
THIS CONTEXTURAL STUFF THAT YOU
WERE TALKING ABOUT?
>> SO, THE ROLE OF CONTEXT AND
MOST OF THESE DEMONSTRATIONS
THAT I SHOWED YOU IS SOMETHING
THAT'S CONVERTING THESE LOW
LEVEL IMAGE BASED REPRESENT
ANTICIPATIONS TO A
REPRESENTATION OF THE THING
THAT'S IN THE WORLD THAT CAUSED
THAT RETINAL IMAGE AND AS I SAID
AT THE BEGINNING THATY THIS IS A
FUNDAMENT AMILLIO COMPUTATION
THAT HAS TO HAPPEN AT SOME
FAIRLY EARLY STAGE IN THE VISUAL
CORTEX.
>> YEAH.
>> THAT'S WHAT WE'RE REALLY
ABOUT HERE.
HOW TO OVERCOME THE ADVERSE
PROBLEM.
>> I AM GIVING A LECTURE TO THE
COGNITIVE SCIENCE UNDERGRADS,
LATER TODAY AND I WOULD LOVE TO
HAVE YOUR SLIDES FOR THAT
PURPOSE.
>> OF COURSE.
>> THANK YOU.
>> I HAVE A QUICK QUESTION WHICH
IS THE ROLE OF CONTEXT WAS
BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED IN YOUR
TALK AND JUST WONDERING IF YOU
COULD EXPAND ON WHAT YOU THINK
CONTEXT IS COMPUTATIONALLY AND
SO IN WHAT SENSE IS IT ABOUT
CERTAIN KINDS OF TJUNCTIONS THAT
CREATE SOME DEPTH OF
REPRESENTATION AND THERE'S SOME
KIND OF DEPTH RELATED QUALITY
CONTRIBUTION, SO COMPUTATIONALLY
WHAT'S GOING ON THERE SO WE CAN
CALL IT CONTEXT.
>> IT'S A GOOD QUESTION.
THERE HAVE BEEN SIMPLE MODELS OF
THIS THAT PEOPLE PUT FORTH, I
DIDN'T MENTION IT BUT THERE'S A
LATER PAPER WHERE WE USE
INHIBITION STABILIZED NETWORK TO
TRY TO PREDICT THESE CONTEXTURAL
EFFECTS BUT REALLY WHAT YOU WANT
TO DO AND UNTANGLE EXTRINSIC
VERSUS INTRINSIC.
THERE ARE LOTS OF IMAGE FEATURES
THAT ARE ASSOCIATED WITH
PARTICULAR OBJECTS, THOSE ARE
THE INTRINSIC FEATURES, AND
THERE ARE LOTS OF THEM THAT ARE
ACCIDENTS OF THE WAY THE RETINAL
IMAGES FORMED.
AND I DON'T HAVE A MECHANISM FOR
THAT, I THINK IT'S A FAIRLY
TRAIT FORWARD COMPUTATIONAL
PROBLEM BECAUSE THERE ARE LOTS
OF THINGS IN THE IMAGE THAT GIVE
YOU THAT INFORMATION AND I
CONFESS, I WAS PRETTY--I DREW A
CIRCLE AND SAID THAT'S WHERE
CONTEXT INTERVENES AND THAT'S
NOT REALLY A MECHANISM BUT THE
TRUTH IS WE DON'T REALLY KNOW
MUCH MORE THAN THAT.
WE KNOW WHAT THE RELEVANT
FACTORS ARE.
>> YEAH, IT WAS FASCINATING IT
BROUGHT ME BACK TO MY 20 +
YEARS--30 + YEARS AGO MY Ph.D.
WHERE I WORK WITH THAT AND WITH
SPHEEF GROSS BERG'S SCHOOL IN
WHICH WE ACTUALLY BROUGHT
DEVELOPED MODELS TO ACTUALLY
EXPLAIN THOSE PHENOMENON BASED
COMPUTATION.
>> I THINK STEVE HAS EXPLAINED
EVERYTHING EMPLOY.
>> WELL--
>> [LAUGHTER]
>> WELL WE CAN TALK ABOUT THAT
LATER.
>> [INDISCERNIBLE] GAVE ME
PERMISSION TO MAKE A BRIEF
COMMENT, IT'S ABOUT THE BOARD OF
SCIENTIFIC COUNSELORS BECAUSE
SOME YEARS AGO WHEN LESLIE WAS
PREPARING FOR A REVIEW AND VERY
ANXIOUS SHE TOLD ME THAT 1 OF
THE YOUNG PEOPLE IN HER LAB WAS
CONCERNED THEY SAID, BUT YOU'RE
SO ACCOMPLISHED WHY WOULD YOU
STILL BE NERVOUS ABOUT THESE
THINGS?
AND SHE SAID, OH THE REASON I'M
SO ACCOMPLISHED IS BECAUSE I
REALLY GET NERVOUS ABOUT THESE
THINGS.
[LAUGHTER]
>> AND IT WAS OBVIOUS THAT SHE
WAS QUAKING WHEN WE WERE THERE.
BUT, IT WAS ALSO STORY THOSE OF
US COMING IN FROM THE OUTSIDE,
AS I SAID IN MY QUOTE THERE THIS
IS 1 OF THE BEST COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE PROGRAMS IN THE
WORLD.
ANYWAY, THANK YOU.
[ APPLAUSE ]
>> BOB, I'M GLAD YOU REINFORCED
THAT BECAUSE A LOT OF US KIND OF
LIVED WITH IT AND JUST AMAZING
HOW ANXIOUS SHE COULD GET AND
UNTIL SHE KNEW TOM WAS COMING.
SO I THINK THIS IS THE LAST TALK
BEFORE LUNCH, IT'S JIM HAXBY,
WHO'S THE DIRECTOR OF THE CENTER
FOR COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AT
DARTMOUTH.
I WAS NOT PLANNING--THIS SESSION
SHOULD HAVE BEEN INTRODUCED BY
ELI MERIAM WHO WE SAW EARLIER
AND INTRODUCING MICKEY, BUT I
WAS CALLED INTO TAKE ELI A PLACE
WHO IS INFECTED AND COULDN'T BE
HERE.
ACTUALLY I WAS ORDERED BY
[INDISCERNIBLE] WHO IS IN CHARGE
OF THIS WHOLE BUSINESS SO I'M
DOING MY JOB BUT SINCE I WASN'T
PLAN TO INTRODUCE JIM, WHICH IS
REALLY KIND OF A HOOT FOR ME AND
I THINK FOR HIM AS WELL, SO WE
MET EARLIER SO WE MET EARLIER
THIS MORNING BECAUSE I WANTED TO
KNOW IF JIM WAS GOING IT GO OVER
THE HISTORY OF THE LAB, AND HE
SAID HE WOULD, WHICH I WAS
RELIEVED BY, BECAUSE THAT MEANT
I DIDN'T HAVE TO DO IT SO WE
QUICKLY DISCUSSED IT AND AS
OFTEN HAPPENS WHEN YOU DEAL WITH
LONG-TERM REMOTE MEMORIES, THERE
WAS DISAGREEMENTS I OF COURSE
WAS CORRECT JIM NOT SO MUCH BUT
I THINK WE STRAIGHTENED OUT ALL
THE DIFFERENCES, SO, JIM,
PLEASE?
AND IF THERE ARE ANY
DIFFERENCES, I PLAN TO JUMP IN
AND CORRECT THE RECORD BUT ...
>> THANK YOU OUR MEMORY IS HOW
THE LABRATIVE BRAIN COGNITION
GOT STARTED SO WE CAN SAY WHAT
WE WANT TO IS IT BECOMES
HISTORY, RIGHT?
SO I WAS IN THE LBC FROM
1992-2002 AND IT'S THE FIRST
NUMBER WE'RE DISAGREEING ABOUT,
I MOVE FROM NIMH IN 1992 AND WE
MOVED INTO A LABORATORY CALLED
THE LABORATORY OF
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND ALEX MOVED
THAT SAME YEAR ASK WE CAN'T
REMEMBER WHEN EXACTLY IT WENT
FROM THE LPP TO THE LBC AND WHEN
EXACTLY LESLIE TRANSFERRED FROM
THE LAB OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY TO
BECOME THE CHIEF OF THE LBC, SO
SOMEWHERE IN THERE SO 1992-1994
SO SUSAN HAS RESEARCHED THIS,
COURTNEY WHO WAS THE FIRST POST
DOC AND SHE CONFIRMS THAT 1994
WAS THE OFFICIAL LBC
INAUGURATION DATE.
SO MY HISTORY AT NIH GOES BEFORE
THAT.
I CAME TO NIH 10 YEARS EARLIER
AND WORKED IN STANLEY RAPPA
PORTS LABORATORY OF
NEUROSCIENCES ON THE NATIONAL
INSTITUTE ON NEURAL AGING AND
THE SAME YEAR I,A RIEFED SHERYL
HAD BEEN THERE FOR A HALF YEAR,
OR A YEAR BEFORE I GOT THERE AND
BARRY HOROWITZ CAME A COUPLE
MONTHS AFTER THE SUMMER OF THAT
YEAR AND WE BECAME CLOSE FRIENDS
AND COLLABORATORS, WORKING
CLOSELY TOGETHER ON THE STUDIES
IN THAT LAB WHICH HAD TO DO WITH
LOOKING AT HEALTHY AGING AND
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES LIKE
ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE AND VACULAR
DEMENTIA AND WE USED TOM AGRAPHY
BRAIN IMAGING BUT BACK THEN ALL
WE COULD REALLY DO WAS STUDY
RESTING STATE GLUCOSE
METABOLISM, 1 SHOT USING 18
FLUORINE LABELED DEOXYGLUCOSE.
WHILE WE'RE DOING THIS WORK, A
PAPER CAME UP WITH O15 LABELED
WATER TO STUDY BLOOD FLOW.
AND AND THAT TECHNIQUE WAS
POSSIBLE FOR BRAIN ACTIVITY
INTEGRATING OVER A PERIOD OF
ABOUT A MINUTE, A LITTLE LESS
THAN A MINUTE WITH MULTIPLE
RUNS, 6-12 RUNS.
SO YOU COULD ACTUALLY HAVE TASK
VACTIVATION AND IT'S THE EARLY
TASK ACTIVATION STUDIES WERE
COMING OUT OF MARK
[INDISCERNIBLE] LAB OF
WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY AND FROM
THE [INDISCERNIBLE] HOSPITAL FOR
KD--SALLY'S GROUP.
SO WE WANTED TO USE THIS METHOD
AND WE HAD FOUND IN OUR STUDIES
OF ALZHEIMEREE DISEASE THAT
REDUCTIONS OF RESTING STATE
METABOLISM WERE MOST PROMINENT
IN THE ASSOCIATION COTTERISS OF
THE PARIETAL TEMPORAL LOBES AND
THEY WERE PREDICTIVE WHAT WOULD
APPEAR LATER IN THE
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASE SO WE
WANTED TO TAKE A HARDER LOOK AT
HOW THESE COTTER ICES WERE
BEHAVING WHEN THEY WERE NOT AT
REST SO WE THOUGHT HOW WOULD WE
DO THIS, HOW DO WE ACTIVATE THE
PARIETAL AND TEMPORAL COTTERISS,
AND THE ANSWER IS OBVIOUS TO
EVERYBODY IN THIS ROOM.
WE KNEW LESLIE WELL AT THAT
TIME, SO SHERYL AND PERRY AND I
GOT IN TOUCH WITH LESLIE WHO WAS
IN BUILDING 9, WE WERE IN
BUILDING 10 NEXT DOOR AND ASKED
IF SHE WAS INTERESTED IN
LABERATION TO DO FUNCTIONAL
BRAIN IMAGING STUDY TO MAP OUT
WHERE THE VISUAL SYSTEMS IN THE
HUMAN BRAIN WHICH HADN'T BEEN
DONE BEFORE.
SO SHE ASKED MARK
[INDISCERNIBLE] TO GET INVOLVED
SO THIS WAS THE COLLABORATIVE
TEAM, 3 OF US LESLIE AND AND
SAYS THAT FACES ARE PURELY
VENTRAL PATHWAYS OF OBJECT
CATEGORY, SO WE DEVISE A TASK
THAT COMBINED FACE PERCEPTION
AND FACE PERCEPTION VISUAL
PROCESSING.
AND THEN A SERIES OF OTHER
PAPERS BY LESLIE AND SHERYL AND
BARRY AND RANDY MCINTOSH AND YOU
CAN SEE IT MAPS OUT PATH WAI AND
CORTEX FOR THE FAITHS MATCHING
TASK AND THE PATHWAY GOING INTO
POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX FOR
THE LOITATION MATCHING TASK AND
THEN THERE ARE FRONTAL AREAS AND
GREEN SPATIAL AREA DORSAL
POSITIONALLY AND LARGER VEPTERAL
RED AREA FOR THE FACE MATCHING
TASK.
SO, WE WERE VERY EXCITED ABOUT
THIS IN FACT I'M SUPER EXCITED
ABOUT IT, HAVE A LOT OF FUN AND
I DON'T WANT TO STUDY HEALTHY
AGING AND NEURODEGENERATIVE
DISEASES ANYMORE, I WANT TO
STUDY THE HEALTHY BRAIN AND THE
COGNITIVE ORGANIZATION OF A
HEALTHY BRAIN SO I TALKED TO
LESLIE, ABOUT THIS, AND MORT AND
I SAID IS THERE ANY WAY I COULD
MOVE FROM NIA TO NIMH, AND WE
COULD SET UP A FUNCTIONAL BRAIN
IMAGING PROGRAM FOR COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH AND THEY
WERE INSTRUMENTAL IN MAKING THIS
HAPPEN SO THIS WAS A CRITICAL
PIVOTAL MOMENT IN MY CAREER WHEN
I WAS ABLE TO MOVE TO NIMH AND
CHANGE THE FOCUS OF MY RESEARCH.
I REINVENTED MYSELF, I WAS A
NEURAL PSYCHOLOGIST AND I BECAME
A COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENTIST WITH
THIS MOVE.
SO WITH EFTHIMIOSLY MURKY OF
WHAT HAPPENED BETWEEN 1992 AND
1994 AND I THINK THAT WE
PROBABLY WERE NOT DOING THE
RIGHT THING IN EVERY WAY SO WE
REPRESSED SOME OF THOSE MEMORIES
BUT THE RESULT IS BY 1994 IN THE
LABORATORY OF BRAIN COGNITION
EXISTED AND LESLIE MOVED IN FROM
THE LABORATORY OF NEURAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND BECAME CHIEF OF
THE LAB AND ALEX AND I WERE BOTH
SECTION CHIEFS AND THAT WAS THE
BEGINNING OF REALLY WHAT I WOULD
CALL A GOLDEN PERIOD IN MY
SCIENTIFIC CAREER.
AND FIRST POST DOCKERS IN THE
LAB WERE CLARK AND SUSAN
COURTNEY AND YOU HEARD FROM
SUSAN COURTNEY AND WE HAD A
SERIES OF POST DOC PEOPLE IN MY
SECTION AND DOESN'T BROTHER TO
TRY TO BRING PICTURINGS OF POST
DOCS FROM ALL THESE SECTIONS,
AND SO YOU'VE HEARD FROM
COURTNEY YESTERDAY, TEREVERRIC
TALK AND THEN REALLY MY TALK
TODAY, IS GOING TO LARGELY BE
THE WORK THAT THEY'VE BEEN
CONDUCTED FOR THE LAST 20 YEARS.
SO THAT IS MY FIRST GREAT DEBT
TO LESLIE IS PROFESSIONAL, THAT
SHE REALLY FACILITATED THE
CHANGE IN MY CAREER PATH WHICH
WAS JUST ABSOLUTELY CRITICAL FOR
ME AND I'M FOREVER GRATEFUL TO
LIVE WITH THAT.
THE SECOND DEBT HAS TO DO MORE
WITH THE CONTENT OF THE SCIENCE
THE WAY SHE THOUGHT ABOUT THE
ORGANIZATION OF THE CORTEX AS
CORTICALE AREAS THAT ARE
CONNECTED HIERARCHICALLY AND
BRANCH INTO DIFFERENT PATHWAYS
AND AS BOB [INDISCERNIBLE] MADE
CLEAR YESTERDAY, THIS WAS NOT AN
OBVIOUS SOLUTION AT THE TIME.
THIS WAS--SHE INVENTED THIS AWAY
OF THINKING ABOUT CORTICALE
ORGANIZATION, OUT OF NOTHING,
OKAY, WITHOUT NOTHING, BUT IT
WAS REALLY AN ACTIVE GREAT
SCIENTIFIC CREATION TO COME UP
WITH THIS.
OUR STUDY OF INITIAL STUDY
CONFIRMED THE BASIC OUTLINES OF
THIS SYSTEM BUT THERE WAS A
PROBLEM, THAT WAS BECAUSE OF
MORT'S ADVICE TO USE FACES AS
THE OBJECT VISION TEST SO I WAS
PRESENTING THIS WORK AT MEETINGS
AND SAYING THE SPATIAL VISUAL
TEST AND THE OBJECT VISION TEST
AND AT SOME MEETING, I FORGET
WHICH 1 IT WAS, THIS YOUNG GUY
GOT UP AND ASKED A REALLY
IMPORTANT QUESTION, THIS IS SEAN
MARET, MANY OF YOU KNOW SEAN,
HE'S HERE NOW AND EASE ACTUALLY
MOVING TO DARTMOUTH, BUT AT THIS
TIME HE WAS AT THE MONTREAL AND
NEUROLOGICAL INSTITUTE WORKING
FOR [INDISCERNIBLE] AND HE ASKED
THE VERY OBVIOUS QUESTION, WHY
DID YOU USE A FACE PERCEPTION
TASK?
AREN'T FACES A SPECIAL CATEGORY?
IN WHAT WAY CAN YOU USE THAT AS
REPRESENTATIVE OF OBJECT VISION?
AND THAT STUNG BECAUSE IT WAS
ABSOLUTELY RIGHT OF COURSE.
SO SO THE QUESTION WAS THE FACE
PERCEPTION AND GENERALLY TRUE OF
OBJECT PERCEPTION.
NOW I WANTED TO POINT OUT ON
THIS FIGURE HERE THAT IT HAS
SOME FEATURES IN IT THAT ARE
LARGELY OVERLOOKED, THE TEMPORAL
AND PARIETAL AND WHAT AND WHERE
PATHWAYS, WHERE AND WHERE
PATHWAYS, BUT THERE ARE THESE
FRONTAL AREAS, OKAY?
WHICH IS CONSISTENT WITH
LESLIE'S MAP OF THE PATHWAYS
ROUGH ATOM JECTING TO FRONTAL
CORTEX, AND IF YOU LOOK IN THE
CORONAL SECTION OF THE SPACES,
IT LIES EXACTLY IN THE FIELD OF
CORTEX.
SO, WE WENT AHEAD TO ASK IS THIS
ACTIVITY SPECIFIC TO FACES, AS
COMPARED TO THE REPRESENTATION
OF OTHER OBJECTS, AND WE WERE
PROCEEDED, IN PUBLISHING THIS BY
A SERIES OF PAPERS, THAT SHOWED
PRECISELY THAT, THAT THERE IS AN
AREA IN VENTRAL TEMPORAL CORTEX
AND INFUSED CORTEX THAT RESPONDS
SELECTIVELY TO FACES, THE FIRST
PAPER WAS BY [INDISCERNIBLE]
SHOWING THIS AND THEN GREG
MCCARTHY AND NANCY
[INDISCERNIBLE] PUBLISHED PAPERS
IN THE SUBSEQUENT YEARS, NANCY
KANWISHER HAD THE FORESIGHT OF
GIVING IT A NAME AND NAMING
THING SYSTEM REALLY IMPORTANT IN
SCIENCE BECAUSE ONCE YOU GIVE IT
A NAME EVERYBODY REMEMBERS THE
NAME AND YOUR NAME WITH THE
NAME.
SO [INDISCERNIBLE] FACE AREA AND
THESE ARE 2 STUDIES THIS 1'S BY
ALMEDA SHY WHERE SHE CONFESSED
AT THE NEURAL RESPONSE TO FACES,
TO THE RESPONSE TO CHAIRS OR
HOUSES, AND THIS IS A STUDY
WHERE WE CONTRASTED DOING FACES
TO VIEWING HOUSES AND THERE ARE
A COUPLE OF FEATURES I WANT TO
POINT OUT HERE THEY THINK ARE
IMPORTANT.
FIRST YOU'LL NO NOTICE THAT
OTHER OBJECTS LIKE HOUSES AND
CHAIRING DON'T ACTIVATE THE SAME
AREA OR SAME POPPOGRAPHY AND YOU
MAY THINK THE HOUSE AREA IS THE
PLACE AREA AND THE BLUE AREA IS
THE OBJECT AREA.
BUT IF YOU HAVE DIFFERENT
CATEGORIES OF OBJECTS, THEY LOOK
DISTINCT PATTERNS OF RESPONSE.
SO THEY EACH HAVE A SPECIFIC
TOPOGRAPHY AS COMPARED TO SHOES,
AS COMPARED TO SCISSORS, ET
CETERA.
SO IT REALLY IS AN OVERRICISM
LIAISONIFICATION, OOPS WHAT
HAPPENED THERE, TO SAY THIS BLUE
AREA IS THE OBJECT AREA.
THE SECOND, IS, THAT IT'S NOT
JUST INFUSING THE OBJECT FOR THE
FFA BUT THERE'S ALSO AN
OCCIPITAL AREA, THE OFFA, AND
THERE'S THIS AREA OF THE
TEMPORAL SULCUS AREA, NOW AGAIN
WE ARE PRECEDED IN POINTING OUT
THE PHASE PERCEPTION BY INA, WHO
PUBLISHED A PAPER IN 1998, ON
THE ROLE OF THE PURE TEMPORAL
SULCUS AND THE PERCEPTION OF
FACIAL MOVEMENT AND THEN THERE
WAS A VERY INFLUENTIAL REVIEW
PAPER IN [INDISCERNIBLE] BY
COLLEAGUES ON MOVEMENT
PERCEPTION AND SOCIAL PERCEPTION
MORE GENERALLY.
SO IT WASN'T THAT THERE WAS JUST
A MODULE AND THERE WERE 3 AREAS
THAT WERE INVOLVED NOW THERE'S A
THING THAT'S RULED ABOUT THESE
FIGURES, OKAY, IS THAT WE DON'T
SEE THESE FRONTAL AREAS IN THE
STUDY WHAT HAPPENED TO THE
FRONTAL AREAS WE WERE LIMITED TO
HOW MUCH WE COULD STUDY SO WE
ORIENTED OUR STUDIES TO BE
CORROANTA SLICES AND WE STOPPED
HALFWAY UP THE BRAIN, SO
EVERYTHING IN THE FRONTAL LOBE
WAS NOT LOOKED AT AND WE MISSED
SOME REALLY IMPORTANT STUFF
INLET FRONTAL CORTEX BECAUSE OF
THAT SOLUTION, WE DIDN'T THINK
THE FRONTAL CORTEX WAS
IMPORTANT, RIGHT IN VISUAL
PERCEPTION AND THAT WAS A BIAS.
SO THAT WAS TRUE IN THE
[INDISCERNIBLE] STUDY AND TRUE
IN THIS STUDY, THAT ALL THIS
CORTEX IN THE FRONTAL LOBE WAS
SIMPLY NOT STUDIED AND IT WAS
ALSO TRUE OF AN INFLUENTIAL
PAPER BY ELIZABETH HOFFMAN BY ME
WITH THE SERIES POINTS ACCEPTION
VERSUS IDEBTSITY, ALL THOSE
PAPERS DIDN'T HAVE FRONTAL
CORTEX IN IT.
SO WE AG GREGATED ALL THE
INFORMATION AND CAME UP WITH
OTHER STUDIES AND CAME UP WITH
THIS MODEL THAT WE PUBLISH
INDEED 2000 ABOUT THE
ORGANIZATION OF THE DISTRIBUTED
NEURAL SYSTEM FOR PHASE
PERCEPTION IN THE HUMAN BRAIN.
AND WE DIVIDE IT INTO A CORE
SYSTEM PER PERCEPTUAL
PROCESSING, ARLENE TALKED ABOUT
THIS YESTERDAY, AND FURTHER
ANALYSIS WE THOUGHT WERE
NONVIGIL AREAS WERE PROCESSING
INFORMATION FOR LIKE SPATIAL
ATTENTION, LIP READING, ET
CETERA.
AND WE PROPOSED THAT THESE 3
AREAS IN THE VISUAL CORTISES,
PLAYED A ROLE IN THESE AND IT
WAS LIKE THE DIRECTION OF GAZE
OR, MOTIONAL DESCREKS AND THIS
PLAYED A STRONGER ROLE IN THE
REPRESENTATION OF A VARIANT
ASPECT OF FACES, THINGS THAT
DON'T CHANGE WITH EXPRESSION OR
DIRECTION OF HEAD OR EYE GAZE OR
HEAD ANGLE THAT IS IMPORTANT FOR
PERCEPTION OF IDENTITY
INDEPENDENT OF THOSE CHANGEABLE
FEATURES.
SO IN PARALLEL WITH THOSE
STUDIES WORKING MEMORY FOR
FACIALS, THIS IS THE MAIN--THIS
IS SUSAN COURTNEY IN HER SHORT
HAIRED PHASE AND SHE HAD SHORT
HAIR AND LONG HAIR PHASES AND
THIS IS THE MAIN RESULT, WE HAD
AXIAL SLICES FOR THE FRONT BRAIN
AND WE WERE WORKING ON MEMORY
AND WE WERE CPS IT WOULD BE
RELATED TO SUSTAINED ACTIVITY
AFTER THE PHASES ARE BEING HELD
AND WORKING IN THE MEMORY STORE
AND THAT'S EXACTLY WHAT WE
FOUND.
WE SHOWED WE COULD DECOMPOSE THE
RESPONSE TO THIS TASK INTO THE
RESPONSE TO THE PERCEPTUAL
STIMULUS AND INTO THE ACTIVITY
PERIOD.
AND, BOTH PHASE STIMULI AND
CONTROL STEMUE LIE AND SHOWED
THERE WAS A NONSPECIFIC RESPONSE
TO VISUAL STIMULI IN NONVISUAL
CORTEX AND IN THE GYRUS AND THE
PHASE AREA, THERE WAS A STRONGER
RESPONSE TO FACES THAN TO THE
CONTROL STIMULI AND ALONG THIS
PATHWAY THERE WAS STRONGER
ACTIVITY DURING THE DELAY
PERIOD, THOSE ARE THE RED BARS
AND THAT'S OUR ATTENTION WAS
FOCUSED ON, THE INCREASE OF
ACTIVITY DURING THE MEMORY
PERIOD, AND WHAT WE REALLY
DIDN'T PAY ATTENTION TO WAS THAT
THE RESPONSE TO THE FACES WAS
EQUAL ALL THE WAY ALONG
INCLUDING IN THESE VERY FRONTAL
AREAS, SO THE FRONTAL AREAS
DON'T ONLY HOLD ACTIVITY FOR
MEMORY DELAY BUT THEY'RE
ENCODING THE INFORMATION DURING
THE PERCEPTUAL FACE.
CAN AND THEN IN A SECOND SET OF
PARALLEL STUDIES, IT WAS
INSIGATED
INSTIGATED BY THE NIMH AND ELEN
LEIBENLUFT GOT IN TOUCH WITH US
AND SHE WAS THE LAST 1 TO GIVE A
TESTIMONIAL YESTERDAY, I THINK
IF I REMEMBER RIGHT, AND SHE
SAID IT WOULD BE INTERESTING TO
SEE WHAT THE RESPONSE IS TO
FAMILIAR FACES AS COMPARED TO
STRANGER'S FACES.
SO, SO THIS HAS BEEN THE FOCUS
OF IDA'S GOAL EVER SINCE, IS THE
PERSONAL REPRESENTATION OF
FAMILIAR FACES AND WE DID 3
STUDIES AND I THINK THE STUDY
THAT ELEN WANTED TO DO THE MOST
IS THE 1 WE DIDN'T FINISH.
SHE'S INTERESTED IN AFFECTIVE
DISORDERS AND SHE WANTED TO LOOK
AT THE RESPONSE OF PEOPLE
LOOKING AT PICTURES OF PEOPLE
THEY RECENTLY LOST.
I WASN'T GOING TO DO THAT BUT WE
DID THESE 2 STUDIES WHERE WE HAD
PEOPLE LOOKING AT PICTURES OF
FRIENDS AND RELATIVES AS
COMPARED TO CELEBRITIES SO
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF
FAMILIESIARITY, OR PATIENTS IN
THE CLINICS OF MOTHERS LOOK AT
THE CHILDREN OR FRIENDS OF CHILD
SO THEY WERE FAMILIAR WITH WITH
A SPECIAL EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT
AND IN BOTH OF THESE CASE WHAT
IS WE FOUND WAS INCREASED
ACTIVITY AND ANTERIOR MEDIA
PREFROBTAL CORTEX AND IN THE
TEMPORAL PARIETAL JUNCTION.
NOW WHEN I LOOK AT THESE RESULTS
AND THE CORTEX, THERE'S NO
DIFFERENCE IN THE PHASE AREAS
BECAUSE TD TPJ WAS REALLY BEHIND
THE STS REGION, AND I SAID WELL,
YOU KNOW THIS EXPERIMENT WAS A
FAILURE BECAUSE I HAD THIS BIAS
AGAINST FRONTAL CORTEX AND IDA
SAID NO, NO LOOK AT THIS STUFF
IN THE FRONT.
THIS IS REALLY INTERESTING, WE
WERE AT PRINCETON AT THE TIME.
AND WE WERE ANALYZING THESE
RESULTS AND WE WERE TALKING WITH
PEOPLE WHO WERE LOOKING AT
THINGS LIKE MORAL DECISION
MAKING, AND THEORY OF MIND.
THESE AREAS ARE INTERESTING WHEN
YOU LOOK AT SOMEONE YOU KNOW,
YOU DON'T JUST SEE THEIR FACE,
YOU SEE THE PERSON AND YOU
REPRESENT WHO THAT PERSON IS,
AND WHO ARE THERE FRIENDS AND
WHAT KIND OF ATTITUDES THEY
HAVE, WHAT ARE THEY THINK BEING
RIGHT NOW AND HOW DO I INTERACT
WITH THIS PERSON.
AS I STRANGER YOU DON'T HAVE ANY
INFORMATION AND WE THINK THAT
THIS ACTIVATION OF THE THEORY OF
MIND OR SOCIAL COGNITION SYSTEM
IS RELATED TO THAT SPECIAL TYPE
OF INFORMATION THAT WE ONLY HAVE
SOARKTED WITH PEOPLE WHO ARE
FAMILIAR.
SO WE SHOWED THAT THERE ARE
AREAS OF LATERAL FRONTAL CORTEX
AND MEDIAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX
THAT ARE ASSOCIATE WIDE FACE
PERCEPTION.
AND--OH NO, WHAT HAPPENED TO MY
SLIDE?
OH WELL, SO IT'S BEEN SHOWN THAT
LOCALIZERS, THAT STANDS FOR
PEOPLE LOOKING AT PICTURES OF
FACES VERSUS ORBJECTS AND
DETERMINES THE TOPOGRAPHY OF A
STRONGER RESPONSE TO FACES THAN
TO OTHER OBJECTS AND YOU SEE
THAT ACTIVITY IN THE SPECIALIZED
AREAS IS VENTRAL TEMPORAL CORTEX
BUT YOU ALSO SEE, I'M SORRY YOU
ARE REAMLY MISSING THIS,
THE--REALLY MISSING THIS IS THE
AREAS IN THE TEMPORAL SULCUS AND
AREAS IN PREFRONTAL CORTEX THAT
ARE SHOWING FACE SELECTIVITY AND
THESE ARE QUITE DIFFERENT FOR
DIFFERENT PEOPLE BUT THERE'S
WAYS FOR LINING THEM UP, SO TO
PUT THE SPECIFIC TOPOGRAPHY OF
SELECTIVITY IS RIDIO SYNCRATTIC
FOR THIS INDIVIDUAL ALTHOUGH
THERE ARE COURSE SIMILARITIES
ACROSS BRAINS.
YOU CAN LINE UP THE FINE GRAINED
TOPOGRAPHYS USING A TECHNIQUE
THAT WE DEVELOPED CALLED HYPER
ALIGNMENT AND I WILL SPARE YOU
THE GORY DETAILS, I LOVE TALKING
ABOUT THIS, IF YOU'RE INTERESTED
BUT I'M JUST GOING TO SAY THAT
BASICALLY WHAT IT DOES IS IT
TAKES PATTERNS OF ACTIVITY THAT
ARE MEASURED IN EACH SUBJECT'S
BRAIN, VECTORIZES THOSE PATTERNS
AND THEN ANALYZES THOSE VECTORS
AS POINTS IN A HIGH DIMENSIONAL
REPRESENTATIONAL SPACE OR
INFORMATION SPACE AND SO, FOR 2
DIFFERENT SUBJECTS, BECAUSE
THEIR VOXYL'S ARE IN POOR
ALIGNMENT, THESE LOCATIONS OF
THESE VECTORS ARE QUITE
DIFFERENT BUT HYPER ALIGNMENT
FINDS THE TRANSFORMATION IMAGE
HIGHLIGHTED HERE BY R1 AND R2
THAT ROTATES THESE VECTORS AND
THESE VECTORS INTO A COMMON
SPACE WHERE WE ARE NOW THE
RESPONSE VECTORS TO THE SAME
STIMULI ARE CLOSE TO EACH OTHER
IN THIS HIGH DIMENSIONAL COMMON
INFORMATIONAL SPACE.
AND DENSELY SAMPLE THE
INFORMATION SPACE BY HAVING
PEOPLE WATCH A NATURALISTIC
MOVIE, SO FIRST WE HAD PEOPLE
WATCH RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARK,
WE MOVED INTO GRAD BOO BUDDHA
PEST HOTEL, DOESN'T REALLY
MATTER WHAT MOVIE YOU HAVE BUT
IT HAS TO BE A RICH MOVIE WITH
DYNAMIC STIMULI TO EVOAKS
PATTERNS, REALLY POPULATE AND
MOST DEVELOPED POSSIBLE
TRANSFORMATION MATRIX, THIS A
HIGH DIMENSIONAL PROBLEM.
WHEN YOU DO THAT YOU WOULD
PROJECT OTHER PEOPLE ACTIVITY
MEASURED RESPONSES DURING THE
LOCALIZER ATTEMPT INTO A
SUBJECT'S BRAIN ANATOMY SO SO ON
THE RIGHT THE ACTIVITY AND THE
VENTRAL CORTEX FOR THE
FUNCTIONAL FACE SELECTED
TOPOGRAPHYS AND VENTRAL CORTEX
IN THE SUBJECT AND YOU CAN SEE
HOW DIFFERENT THEY ARE, THE
LOCATION OF THE PATCHES ARE IN
DIFFERENT LOCATIONS, SO HERE'S
THE OCCIPITAL PHASE AREA,
POSTIERIOR AND ANTERIOR FFA AND
THIS SUBJECT IS A STREAK OF FACE
SELECTIVE ACTIVITY, THIS IS
TYPICAL OF THE REAL INDIVIDUAL
VARIABILITY IN THESE TOPOGRAPHYS
AND WE TAKE OTHER PEOPLE'S
LOCALIZER DATA AND THEY'RE USING
TOPOGRAPHYS, BUT TRANSFORM IT
USING HYPER ALIGNMENT INTO THE
ANATOMY OF SUBJECT 3, SUBJECT 13
AND SUBJECT 20 AND THEN
CALCULATE FACE SELECTIVITY IN
THAT SUBJECT SPACE BASED ON
OTHER SUBJECT LOCALIZER DATA,
THE TOPOGRAPHY IS ESSENTIALLY
NEARLY IDENTICAL TO THE
TOPOGRAPHY MEASURED WITH THE
SUBJECTS OWN LOCALIZER.
DISOWN LOW THESE ARE THE
CORRELATIONS TO THE TOPOGRAPHY
FROM SUBJEBS OWN LOCALIZER DATA
AND THE TOPOGRAPHY ESTIMATED
FROM OTHER SUBJECTS LOCALIZER,
SEARCH LIGHT BY SEARCH LIGHT
THROUGH THE BRAIN AND YOU CAN
SEE THE CORRELATIONS ARE VERY
HIGH UP AROUND .8 TO .9 IN
VENTRAL TEMPORAL AND SES AND
THEY'RE ALSO VERY HIGH TO
ANTERIOR TEMPORAL AND IN FREE
RADICALS FRONTAL AND PREMOTOR
CORTEX WHICH SHOWS THAT THEREY A
DISTINCTIVE TOPOGRAPHY FOR FACE
SELECTIVITY THAT'S NEARLY
UBIQUITOUS IN THE BRAIN SO IT'S
A VERY EXTENSIVE SYSTEM.
SO A TALE THIS, GUY RIGHT HERE
IS THE [INDISCERNIBLE] AND HE
WORKED WITH AS A GRADUATE
STUDENT WITH [INDISCERNIBLE] AND
HE RAN A STUDY AND IDENTIFIED
SEARCH LIGHTS IN THESE DIFFERENT
PHASE AREAS AND THEN HE DID
SOMETHING INTERESTING.
WAS THAT HE USED THESE LOCATIONS
TO LOOK AT THE ACTIVITY DURING
NATURALISTIC MOVIE VIEWING AND
CALCULATED THE REPRESENTATIONAL
GEOMETRY IN EACH SEARCH LIGHT
REPRESENTATIONAL GEOMETRY
REPRESENTATION ANALYSIS SO HOW
SIMILAR IS THE RESPONSE TO 1
TIME POINT AS COMPARED TO OTHER
TIME POINTS AND THEY DO ALL
TIMEWISE CORRELATIONS AND THEN
CAN YOU SAY HOW SIMILAR IS THE
REPRESENTATION OF GEOMETRY FOR
THE MOVIE IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF
THE PHASE PROCESSING PATHWAY?
SO THIS IS REALLY A SECOND ORDER
REPRESENTATION WILL SIMILARITY
ANALYSIS AND IT CAN ALSO BE
THOUGHT OF AS MULTIVARIANT
CONNECTIVITY BETWEEN THESE
PHASES OF CORTICALE FIELDS AND
YOU CAN PLOT OUT THE STRENGTH OF
CONNECTION BETWEEN THESE FACES
OF CORTICALE FIELDS USING
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING AND
WHAT YOU CAN SEE IS THAT IT LAYS
OUT THE ORGANIZATION OF THE
PHASE PROCESSING PATHWAYS
BEAUTIFULLY, STARTING WITH EARLY
VISUAL CORTEX IN BLUE BACK HERE
AND THIS IS THE VENTRAL CORE
SYSTEM FROM OCCIPITAL FORMS AND
EFFUSAL FORM AND ANTERIOR
EFFUSAL FORM, THE DORSAL PART OF
THE FACE PROCESSING SYSTEM HERE
IN PURPLE AND THEN THIS INFERIOR
FRONTAL AREA HERE WHICH IS
REALLY KIND OF AT THE END OF
BOTH VENTRAL PATHWAY AND THE
DORSAL PATHWAY.
AND THEN THESE THEORY OF MIND
AREAS UP HERE.
SO THEY PROPOSED AN UPDATED
MODEL OF THE DISTRIBUTED HUMAN
SYSTEM FOR FACIAL PROCESSING
WHICH IS NOW DIVIDED INTO 3
SUBSYSTEMS, THE DORSAL CORE
SYSTEM AND THE FTF, THE VENTRAL
FUSE SYSTEM AND THE GYRUS AND
THEN THE ANTERIOR CORE SYSTEM IS
THE ANTERIOR GYRUS WITH THE
DORSAL PARTS OF THE VENTRAL AND
AND EARLY CORSYSTEM, AND THIS
DORSAL SYSTEM CORRESPONDS VERY
CLOSELY TO THE THIRD VISUAL
PATHWAY THAT WAS DESCRIBED BY
DAVID [INDISCERNIBLE] AND LESLIE
UNG ERLEIDER RECENTLY IN 2001.
SO WHAT OTHER EVIDENCE DO WE
HAVE THIS FRONTAL AREA MIGHT BE
SOMEHOW GETTING INFORMATION FROM
BOTH THE DORSAL AND VENTRAL
PATHWAYS, AND I THINK THIS IS
RELATED TO THE KIND OF QUESTIONS
THAT BOB WAS ASKING YESTERDAY.
AND SO IN THIS STUDY, BY
[INDISCERNIBLE] WITH IDA, THEY
LOOKED AT DECODING THE IDENTITY
OF FACES IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF
THE FACE PROCESSING PATHWAY AND
THEY COULD DECODE THE IDENTITY
OF THE FACE OR THE HEAD VIEW OF
THE FACE AND WHAT THEY SHOWED
WAS THAT IN THE OFA THE DECODING
WAS VERY STRONG FOR THE HEAD
VIEW BUT NIH FOR THE IDENTITY
AND IN THE FFA IT WAS EQUALLY
STRONG FOR THE IDENTITY AND THEN
IN THE ANTERIOR TEMPORAL PHASE
AREA, IT WAS STRONG FOR IDENTITY
AND DROPPED OFF FOR 0 FOR HEAD
VIEW SORE THERE WAS WAS REALLY A
CHANGE IN THE INFORMATION
PROCESS FROM THE POSTERIOR PART
OF THE PATHWAY TO THE ANTERIOR
PART OF THE PATHWAY.
AND THEY FOUND A FRONTAL AREA,
SO THIS IS THE FRONTAL AREA AND
THERE'S A REPRESENTATION
GEOMETRY FOR THE FACE STIMULI
WAS VERY DIFFERENT FOR THE VERY
EARLY CORTEX AND THE LATE VISUAL
CORTEX, AND FRONTAL CORTEX.
AND THIS IS A LOOK JUST TO SHOW
YOU HOW CONVINCING THESE RESULTS
ARE.
THEY'RE COLOR CODED SO IN THE
VISUAL CORTEX, CAN YOU SEE THAT
IMAGES OF DIFFERENT IDENTITIES
WITH THE SAME HEAD VIEW, ARE
CLUSTERED TOGETHER, SO THERE
WERE PATTERNS OF RESPONSE IN
EARLIER VISUAL CORTEX THAT ARE
SIMILAR FOR THOSE DIFFERENT
PHASE IMAGES.
AND NOT ONLY THAT BUT THIS IS
FULL PROFILE TO THE RIGHT TO BE
QUARTER PROFILE TO THE RIGHT,
FULL VIEW, SO SIMILAR HEAD VIEWS
ARE CLOSER TO EACH OTHER THAN
MORE DISSIMILAR HEAD VIEWS WITH
A BEAUTIFUL CIRCULAR ARRANGEMENT
IN THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING
PLAT.
AND BY CONTRAST IN THE INFERIOR
FRONTAL FACE AREA, THE
CLUSTERING IS BY IDENTITY SO NOW
THE COUPLE OF FACES OF IDENTITY
SO THERE'S THE BLUE GIRL HERE,
THE RED WOMAN HERE, AND THE
GREEN GUY HERE, SO--OH NO.
SO IN ANOTHER STUDY BY
[INDISCERNIBLE] THEY LOOKED AT
DECODING THE IDENTITY OF
PERSONALLY FAMILIAR FACES AND
THEY APPLIED HYPER ALIGNMENT
BEFORE THE DECODING AND THEY
FOUND AGAIN THE INFERIOR FRONTAL
FACE AREA COULD BE DECODED.
THAT MEANS THAT IN 1 SUBJECT,
YOU CAN TELL WHICH PHASE THEY'RE
LOOKING AT USING A DECODER BASE
AND OTHER SUBJECTS RESPONSES AND
OTHER SUBJECTS IN THE NEURAL
CODE CAN DECODE THE IDENTITY OF
THE PHASE IN THIS AREA.
YOU CAN ALSO BE DONE IN VIDEO
PREFRONTAL CORTEX, THIS IS NOT
CONSIDERED VISUAL AREA.
SO WE ASSUME THIS HAS TO DO WITH
PERSONALLY, ABOUT PERSONALLY
FAMILIAR OTHERS THAT HAS A
SHARED NEURAL CODE ACROSS PEOPLE
IN THE CORTEX.
SO I'VE ALREADY GONE OVER THAT
IS SO THIS OUR UPDATED MODEL OF
THE SYSTEM FOR FACE PROCESSING
AND WE STARTED OFF LOOKING AT
THE WHAT AND WHERE PATHWAYS FOR
SPATIAL VISION AND OBJECT
VISION.
WE GOT DISTRACTED INTO LOOKING
AT FACE PROCESSING WHICH WAS 1
OF THE BEST DISTRACTIONS EVER,
AND THE STRUCTURE OF OUR FACE
MODEL, IS REALLY BASED ON THE
STRUCTURE OF HOW LESLIE THOUGHT
ABOUT CORTICALE SYSTEMS,
CONNECTED AREAS IN A
HIERARCHICAL PATHWAY WITH
BRANCHES AND SO THIS, I CAN'T
OVERSTATE OW IMPORTANT THIS KIND
OF CONCEPTURAL FRAMEWORK IS AT
PERCEPTIVE MASK THAT LETS US
UNDERSTAND WHAT WE'RE LOOKING AT
WHEN WE LOOK AT NEW DATA THAT'S
SO CONFUSING SO THAT'S MY SECOND
GREAT DEBT TO LESLIE IS THAT SHE
REALLY LAID THESE FOUNDATIONS
THAT HAD BEEN THE BASES FOR MUCH
MORE IN HER CAREER.
SO, IN 2002, I DECIDED TO
REINVENT MYSELF AGAIN AND I
BECAME A COMPUTATIONAL COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENTIST AND THAT'S WHEN
WE INTRODUCED PATTERN ANALYSIS
AND THEN I REINVENTED MYSELF
AGAIN AND I STARTED DEVELOPING
HYPE OR ALIGNMENT AND IT'S BEEN
10 YEARS SINCE OUR FIRST PAPER
ON HYPER ALIGNMENT AND I'M
TRYING TO THINK OF HOW I WILL
REINVENT MYSELF AGAIN.
BUT THROUGH ALL THIS LESLIE'S
BEEN A GREAT INSPIRATION AND -
WAS WONDERFUL WORKING WITH HER
FOR THAT GOLDEN PERIOD OF 10
YEARS FROM 1992-2002.
SO THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION.
[ APPLAUSE ]
SO WE ARE RUNNING QUITE
BEHIND AND WE STILL HAVE A
WONDERFUL VIDEO WITH TRIBUTES
FROM AROWBTD WORLD TO GO THROUGH
SO IF YOU COULD ALL JUST BEAR
WITH ME, WE WILL PLAY THE VIDEO
AND THEN WE WILL BREAK FOR
LUNCH.
>> HELLO, FOR THOSE WHO DON'T
KNOW ME I'M ANDREW ROSSI AND I
WAS A POST DOCTORAL FELLOW WITH
LESLIE AND BOB IN THE LATE 1990S
AND EARLY 2000S IN THE NIMH
INTRAMURAL PROGRAM.
I DON'T THINK I COULD HAVE
CHOSEN A BETTER PLACE FOR MY
TRAINING OR BETTER MENTORS, IT
WAS A SPECIAL TIME AND I WAS SO
FORTUNATE TO BE PART OF SUCH A
WONDERFUL COMMUNITY OF
SCIENTISTS IN THE LABORATORY OF
BRAIN AND COGNITION AND IN THE
LABORATORY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY.
IT WAS TRULY A FAMILY AND LESLIE
MADE EVERYONE FEEL WELCOME AND
VALUED.
I HAVE SO MANY FOND MEMORIES.
I WILL LIKE TO SHARE AN EARLY
IMPRESSION OF LESLIE, 1 THAT WAS
INSTRUCTED AND IN MANY WAYS
CHANGED THE COURSE OF MY CAREER.
ONE OF THE REASONS REASONS I HT
OUT A POSITION THERE, WAS
BECAUSE I HAD ATTENDED A LECTURE
ON LESLIE'S FUNCTION OF
SPECIALIZED DORSAL AND VENTRAL
PROCESSING PATHWAYS IN THE
VISUAL SYSTEM.
THIS WAS IN THE EARLY 1990S AND
HER PRESENTATION REALLY BROUGHT
HOME TO ME, FOR THE FIRST TIME
THE POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN IMAGING
TO EXPAND OUR UNDERSTANDING OF
SYSTEMS NEUROSCIENCE IN WAYS
THAT WERE NOT POSSIBLE IN ANIMAL
MODELS AT THE TIME.
THIS I WAS TO LEARN WAS A REAL
HALLMARK OF THE RESEARCH COMING
OUT OF THE LABORATORY OF BRAIN
AND COGNITION.
HER PRESENTATION THAT DAY WAS
ALSO MEMORABLE BECAUSE IT WAS A
MASTER CLASS AND HOW TO
COMMUNICATE SCIENCE.
I WOULD LIKE TO SAY A FEW THINGS
ABOUT LESLIE AND PRESENTATIONS.
I THINK EVERYONE GETS A LITTLE
NERVOUS WHEN SPEAKING IN PUBLIC,
HECK I'M A BIT NERVOUS RIGHT NOW
MAKE THANKSGIVING VIDEO AND I AM
BY MYSELF IN MY KITCHEN.
I THINK THE REAL REASON WHY WE
BECOME NERVOUS BEFORE
PRESENTATION SYSTEM MOSTLY
BECAUSE WE CARE.
WE CARE ABOUT PRESENTING THE
RESEARCH CLEARLY AND ACCURATELY,
WE CARE BECAUSE WE'RE PASSIONATE
ABOUT THE SCIENCE AND WE REALLY
WANT TO GET IT RIGHT.
WE CARE BECAUSE THE RESEARCH
WE'RE PRESENTING REPRESENTS BOTH
OUR EFFORTS AND THOSE OF MANY,
MANY OTHERS.
IT PRETALK ANXIETY IS A GOOD
METRIC FOR CARING, LESLIE REALLY
CARED.
THOSE OF US WHO KNEW LESLIE AND
EXPERIENCED HER PRETALK ANXIETY
KNOW THAT SHE COULD TAKE IT TO A
WHOLE OTHER LEVEL.
AT HER LAST BOARD OF SCIENTIFIC
COUNSELORS REVIEW, I SAW HER
SITTING BY HERSELF IN THE PORTER
BUILDING ATRIUM BEFORE THE LBC
PRESENTATIONS, I TALKED OVER TO
HER TO WISH HER LUCK AND SHE SAW
ME COMING AND SHE WAVED ME OFF
EMPHATICALLY.
AFTER THE PRESENTATIONS, WHICH
WERE OUTSTANDING SHE CAME OVER
TO ME AND APOLOGIZED FOR HER
EARLIER ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
SAYING SHE WAS A NERVOUS WRECK.
I CONGRATULATED HER ON THE
PRESENTATION WAS WHICH REALLY
WELL RECEIVED BY THE BOARD OF
SCIENTIFIC COUNSELORS AND
EVERYBODY IN THE ROOM AND THEN I
SAID, YOU KNOW YOU SHOULDN'T
REALLY BE NERVOUS, LESLIE, SHE
HAD A LOT OF EXCITING SCIENCE TO
PRESENT AND SHE WAS 1 OF THE
MOST ACCOMPLISHED SCIENTISTS IN
THAT ROOM KLF-TWO IS SAYING A
LOT, LESLIE TURNED TO ME AT THAT
MOMENT SAID ANDREW EVERY TIME I
GIVE 1 OF THESE PRESENTATIONS,
IT'S LIKE I'M DEFENDING MY
DISSERTATION AGAIN.
LESLIE REALLY CARED AND THIS SET
A GREAT EXAMPLE FOR HER
TRAINEES.
SHE WORKED REALLY HARD ON HER
PRESENTATIONS AND DEMAND THAD WE
DID AS WELL.
SHE PREPARED, WHEN SHE PREPARED
HER PRESENTATION, EVERY SLIDE,
EVERY FIGURE, EVERY WORD WAS
CAREFULLY CHOSEN TO COMMUNICATE
THE SCIENCE EFFECTIVELY, IF
THERE WAS AN ELEMENT OF A FIGURE
THAT WAS NOT PART OF PRETERM
BIRTH SENTATION'S NARRATIVE IT
WAS NEVER INCLUDED IN THE FINAL
SLIDE SET.
IT DOESN'T SEEM TO MATTER IF
THERE WERE 20 PEOPLE IN THE ROOM
OR 2000, SHE CARED ABOUT HER
AUDIENCE AND IMPORTANTLY, SHE
CAREFULLY UNDERSTOOD WHAT HE WAS
PRESENTING, SHE HAD SO MANY
QUALITIES, SHE WAS A GREAT MIND,
GREAT COMMUNICATOR, GREAT WORK
ETHIC AND VERY SUPPORTIVE AND
THOUGHTFUL MENTOR AND THIS
CONTINUED TO BE SO LONG AFTER
SHE LEFT THE LAB.
MAYBE 1 OF THE MOST REMARKABLE
THINGS ABOUT LESLIE WAS THAT
SUCH A TINY PERSON COULD HAVE
SUCH A BIG HEART.
LESLIE'S IMPACT ON NEUROSCIENCE
AND IMPACT ON OUR LIVES HAS BEEN
PROFOUND AND IT'S ONLY FITTING
THATY WOO ARE SET BRAIT
THAGOREAN IN THIS SYMPOSIUM, HER
LAGY LIVING ON WITH HER
ILLUSTRIUS CAREER AND WE'RE ALL
RICHER FOR IT.
>> HELLO I'M [INDISCERNIBLE]
FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY.
RECENTLY, I FOUND A MANUSCRIPT
THAT LESLIE ADDED OVER 16 YEARS
AGO AND RECOVERED A FORGOTTEN
MEMORYITY TRAITING LESLIE'S
MENTORSHIP GENEROSITY AND
LASTING IMPACT LONG AFTER OUR
TRAINING IN HER LABORATORY.
MY MANUSCRIPT REPORTED A STUDY
WITH SOME GERMAN COLLEAGUES
BINDING PERCEPTUAL FEATURES IN
THE HUMAN BRAIN USING MEG AND
EEG WHICH STARTED WHILE I WAS
STILL HAD IN HER LAB.
AS CAN YOU SEE LESLIEADEITED
MANUSCRIPT BETWEEN WITH
CHRISTMAS AND NEW YEAR IN 2005,
WHAT'S MOST TOUCHING TO ME IS
THAT AFTER GIVING DETAILED
FEEDBACKS AND COMMENTS, LESLIE
CROSSED OUT HER OWN NAME FROM
THE AUTHORY LIST, SHE EXPLAINED
TO ME THAT IT WOULD BE SHOWING
MY INDEPENDENCE WITHOUT HER
NAME.
I WAS A COUPLE YEARS INTO
ASSISTANT PROFESSORSHIP.
I WISH I COULD GO BACK TO NIMH
IN PERSON TO HONOR LESLIE,
INSTEAD, I WILL TAKE THIS
MANUSCRIPT EDITED BY HER TO MY
CLASS TODAY, THE CLINICAL AND
SPRNSALATIONAL RESEARCH SEMINAR
ON BIOSTATISTICS.
HERE ARE SOME OF HER COMMENTS,
THEY MAY SOUND FAMILIAR TO HER
FORMER TRAINEES.
CONFUSING.
NOT CLEAR.
WHAT DO YOU MEAN?
DO YOU MEAN L. O. OR M. T.?
AND HER ADVICE, TOO MUCH
STATISTICS NOT ENOUGH ENGLISH TO
EXPLAIN WHAT THEY MEAN.
WHAT'S THE STORY?
HER ADVICE AND COMMENTS WILL BE
VERY PERTINENT NOT ONLY TO
Ph.D.s, RESEARCHERS BUT ALSO
PHYSICIAN SCIENTISTS IN MY
CLASS.
I KNOW FOR SURE THAT SOME OF HER
FORMER COLLEAGUES, STUDENTS AND
THEIR STUDENTS WILL BE WATCHING
THE BEAUTIFUL TRIBUTES TO LESLIE
AND HER SCIENTIFIC LEGACY FROM
OTHER CONTINENTS.
I FEEL VERY LUCKY TO HAVE LESLIE
AS A MENTOR AND PROUD TO BE A
MEMBER OF HER EXTENDED ACADEMIC
FAMILY.
THANK YOU LESLIE.
DID EMPLOY.
>> I STILL REMEMBER THE FIRST 1
TO 1 MEETING I HAD WITH LESLIE.
IT WAS IN 2010 AND IT WAS
IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE FIRST TIME
I PRESENTED IN THE LBC LAB GROUP
AND THAT MEETING WAS ABSOLUTELY
CHARACTERISTIC OF ALL THE
MEETINGS THAT WE HAD SEBS
QUENTLY.
THERE WAS A POINT BY POINT
DISCUSSION OF THE SCIENCE THAT
HAD BEEN PRESENTED, THE CLAIMS
THAT HAD BEEN MADE, WHY DID YOU
THINK THE WAY YOU DID?
HOW DID DO YOU JUSTIFY IT?
HOW DOES THIS TIE IN WITH A
RESULT FROM A DIFFERENT METHOD?
HOW DO YOU INTERPRET THE AMBIG
USITYS YOU IMMEDIATELY
ACKNOWLEDGE IN YOUR WORK AND SHE
WOULD FIND OTHER AMBIGUITYS YOU
HADN'T THOUGHT OF AND SHE WOULD
PUSH OW DISCUSSING THOSE ASPECTS
OF THE SCIENCE BYOU THAT WAS
NEVER JUST THE WHOLE MEETING, IT
WASN'T THAT FIRST TIME, IT
WASN'T IN EVERY SUBSEQUENT
MEETING BECAUSE THE REAL
PLEASURE OF BEING IN LESLIE'S
LAB WAS THE PART OF THE MEETING
WHERE YOU JUST SPOKE TO HER LIKE
A FELLOW SCIENTIST AND YOU SPOKE
ABOUT THE NEWS OF THE DAY, WHAT
WAS GOING ON IN YOUR LIFE, HOW
YOUR FAMILY WERE, LESLIE WAS
VERY CARING, SHE WAS INTERESTED
IN THE PEOPLE IN HER LAB, SHE
WAS INTERESTED IN THE PEOPLE,A
ROUND HER LAB AND THAT WAS FROM
THE RESEARCH ASSISTANTS IN THE
LAB, THE POST DOCS SUPPORT
STAFF, SENIOR COLLEAGUES, AND
CLEEPGS ACROSS THE COUNTRY AND
THAT'S THE THING I MISS MOST
JUST SITTING IN LESLIE'S OFFICE.
LESLIE'S OFFICE WITHOUT AN
EXTERNAL OFFICE BUT IT DOESN'T
NEED AN WINDOW BECAUSE YOU WERE
SITTING IN THERE TALKING WITH
LESLIE AND YOU WOULD TALK ABOUT
WHAT WAS GOING ON IN THE WORLD
AND YOUR LIFE AND
SCIENTIFICALLY.
AND THAT COMBINATION OF
SCIENTIFIC PRECISION, AND JUST A
CARING WARM PERSON WHO WAS
INTERESTED IN PEOPLE AND ALL THE
PEOPLE AROUND HER, THAT WAS THE
MOST INTOXICATING AND POWERFUL
AND JUST WONDERFUL THING ABOUT
BEING IN LESLIE'S LAB AND THAT'S
THE THING I MISSED THE MOST,
TALKING TO LESLIE, MY LAST ZOOM
CONVERSATION WITH LESLIE WAS, I
WOULD SAY 2-3 WEEKS, BEFORE SHE
DIED IN 2020 AND WAS THE SAME AS
THE FIRST CONVERSATION THAT WE
HAD.
WE HAD SPOKE ABOUT SCIENCE AND
THEN WE SPOKE ABOUT WHAT WAS
GOING ON IN THE WORLD AND I
REALLY WISH SHE WERE STILL HERE
NOW BECAUSE I REALLY MISS THOSE
CONVERSATIONS AND THE 1 THING I
THINK I CAN TAKE AWAY FROM THIS
IS JUST HOW INCREDIBLY LUCKY I
WAS, I GOT TO BE IN LESLIE'S LAB
FOR 4 YEARS AND I GOT TO SPEAK
TO HER FOR 5 YEARS AFTER THAT
AND FOR THAT, I WILL ALWAYS BE
GRATEFUL AND YEAH, I JUST MISS
HER.
>> HELLO, EVERYONE, KAREN
[INDISCERNIBLE] HERE, FRIENDS
AND COLLEAGUES, THANK YOU FOR
JOINING IN THIS WONDERFUL
REMEMBRANCE IN HONOR OF LESLIE,
I WANT TO CONVEY A SPECIAL
THANKS TO THE ORGANIZERS OF THIS
EVENT FOR THE OPPORTUNITY TO SAY
A FEW WORDS ABOUT HER.
LESLIE WAS A DEAR FRIEND TO ME
PERSONALLY, AND SHE WAS AN
IMPORTANT FRIEND AND A STRONG
ADVOCATE FOR OUR FIELD, AND FOR
THOSE IN OUR FIELD.
SOME OF THE DESCRIPTORS THAT
COME TO MIND, ARE BRILLIANT OF
COURSE AND BEING BLUNT AND TO
THE POINT AND WHAT YOU BELIEVED
TO BE THE VERY BEST, AND MOST
IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS,
IN GENEROUS WITH HER TIME AND IN
SHARING HER THOUGHTS.
--TO HEAR HER INFECTIOUS LAUGH
AND BASK IN HER EXTRAORDINARILY
CLEAR PERSECTIONAL ANALYSISSIVES
OF THE DAUNTING COMPLEXITIES OF
THE SCIENCE WE DO WAS AN
IMPORTANT PART OF MANY OF MY
WORK I DAYS.
THINKING FARTHER BACK WHEN I
FIRST CAME TO THE NIH, THERE
WERE VERY, VERY FEW WOMEN
SCIENTISTS HERE.
--SHE WAS AN ENDURING
INSPIRATION WHOSE LASTING
CONTRIBUTIONS LIVE ON.
THANK YOU LESLIE, IT'S A
PRIVILEGE TO HAVE KNOWN YOU AND
TO KEEP YOU IN MY THOUGHTS.
>> I'M 1 OF THE FEW Ph.D.
STUDENTS WHO HAD THE PLEASURE OF
WORKING DIRECTLY WITH LESLIE.
--ON THE SURFACE SHE CAME AT ALL
IDEAS WITH A HEALTHY DOSE OF
SKEPTICISM AND I REALIZED EARLY
ON THAT THIS IS HER WAY OF PUSH
BEING ME TO STEP INTO MY OWN
CONFIDENCE AND RESOLVE AND
DEFEND THE WHYS ALONG EVERY STEP
OF THE PROCESS, AS A WOMAN IN
SCIENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE, THIS
WAS HUGE FOR ME, HER FAVORITE
QUESTION TO ASK WAS WHAT IT DOES
IT ALL MEAN.
SHE CARED ABOUT THE FINDINGS BUT
SHE CARED MOST ABOUT THE FIELD
AND THE BIGGER PICTURE.
IT'S A QUESTION THAT FRAMES MUCH
OF WHAT I DO NOW AND REALLY
HELPED ME REALIZE THAT SCIENCE
WAS JUST AS MUCH ABOUT THE
FOREST AS IT WAS THE TREES.
I FOUND THAT WHILE SHE HAD
STRONG OPINIONS ABOUT CERTAIN
IDEAS, SHE WAS ALSO INCREDIBLY
OPEN TO LETTING SCIENCE DO THE
TALKING, SHE WAS OPEN MINDED AND
RESPECTED AND ENCOURAGED IDEAS,
THAT WERE DIFFERENT THAN HER
OWN.
AND WHILE MY HEART SUNK EVERY
TIME I SUNK WITH AN E-MAIL FROM
HER WITH JUST THE SUBJECT LINE
THAT SAID COME SEE ME, THE FIRST
QUESTION SHE WOULD ALWAYS ASK
WHEN I STEPPED INTO MY OFFICE
WAS HOW ARE YOU DOING?
SHE SAW THE PERSON BEHIND THE
SCIENCE, BALANCING RIGOR WITH
COMPASSION AND YOU COULD TRUST
THAT SHE WAS AUTHENTIC IN EVERY
INTERACTION.
FOR ME ENDING UP IN LESLIE'S LAB
HAPPENED SOMEWHAT
SERENDIPITOUSLY BUT I'M FOREVER
GRATEFUL THAT SHE IS
[INDISCERNIBLE] TOOK A CHANCE TO
ME.
>> SOME THOUGHTS ON THE PASSING
OF MY FRIEND LESLIE UNG
ERLEIDER, LESLIE AND I MET IN
1976 SHORTLY AFTER I ARRIVED AT
THE NIH IN THE MIDDLE OF THAT
YEAR, SHE HAD BEEN HERE ABOUT 8
OR 9 MONTHS AT THAT TIME AND
THAT MADE HER AN EXPERT ON ALL
THINGS NIH.
OVER THE YEARS AS WELL AS BEING
PROFESSIONAL COLLEAGUES BECAME
VERY CLOSE FRIENDS, DURING THE
WHOLE TIME I KNEW HER, WE WOULD
MEET ON OCCASION, NO 1 I THINK
KNEW WE DID THIS, BUT IT
OCCURRED ALL THE WAY UP TO THE
TIME OF HER DEATH THAT EVERY FEW
MONTHS WE WOULD GET TOGETHER
SOMETIMES IN MY OFFICE IN
BUILDING 49 THAT WAS BEFORE HER
MOBILITY WAS LIMITED AND
OTHERWISE IN HER OFFICE IN
BUILDING 10.
AND WE WOULD SIT AND COMPARE
NOTES IT WAS OFTEN ABOUT OUR
FAMILIES AND OUR KIDS NOT VERY
MUCH ABOUT THE DETAILS OF OUR
SCIENCE BUT WE WERE ALSO VERY
CLOSE COLLEAGUES ABOUT THE
SCIENCE.
WE WORKED ON SIMILAR PROBLEMS,
AND IT WAS A REAL PLEASURE TO
DISCUSS WITH HER, THE IDEAS THAT
WERE FLOATING AROUND ON HOW THE
VISUAL SYSTEM WORKED.
AND AS I SAID, A CLOSE FRIEND WE
WOULD GO TO THE OPERA IN THE 80S
AND EARLY 90S TOGETHER, SOMEHOW
STARTING AROUND 2000 THAT
SLIPPED BY THE WAY SIDE AND WE
WOULD GO OUT TO DINNER ON
OCCASION, MY WIFE ANN, LESLIE
AND ME.
I MISS HER TERRIBLY AND I'M
GOING TO END ON THE 1 POINT,
IT'S BOTH PROFESSIONAL AND
PERSONAL, WHICH IS YOU KNOW I
HAD 1 MORE THING I REALLY NEEDED
TO DISCUSS WITH HER AND I BET A
LOT OF YOU OUT THERE IN THE
AUDIENCE HAVE THAT SAME FEELING.
THERE'S 1 MORE IDEA THAT YOU
REALLY NEED HER HELP ON.
SHE WAS VERY GOOD AT GETTING
FOCUSED AND CLARIFYING WHAT THE
REAL ISSUES IN VARIOUS PROBLEMS
WERE AND IN FACT, 1 OF MY POST
DOCS [INDISCERNIBLE] AND I HAD
AN APPOINTMENT TO MEET WITH HER
LATER IN THE WEEK WHEN SHE DIED.
AND I JUST MISS HER TERRIBLY.
>> I FIRST MET LESLIE IN 1988
WHEN I INVITED HER AND
[INDISCERNIBLE] TO COME TO THE
LAB [INDISCERNIBLE] THAT
ENCOUNTER WAS FOLLOWED BY AN
INVITATION TO NIH IN EARLY 1989
WHERE I GAVE A TALK MYSELF ON MY
WORK IN CROSS MODAL PLASTICITY
AND MY IDEAS ON PROCESSING
STREAMS IN THE AUDITORY CORTEX.
CANNED WHAT HAD BECOME
INTERESTED IN THE TOPIC AND
ASKED IF I WOULD BE INTERESTED
IN JOINING THE LAB AS A VISITING
SCIENTIST AND SENIOR
INVESTIGATOR.
DURING MY INITIAL VISIT, I
STAYED IN BOB AND LESLIE'S HOUSE
AND I LESLIE ASKED ME IF I HAD A
NICKNAME OR AS SHE PUT IT WHAT
MY MOTHER CALLED ME ALTHOUGH SHE
LIKED THE NICKNAME, SHE CALLED
ME JOE FOR THE REST OF HER LIFE.
THE OFFICIAL JOB OFFER WAS
EXTEND INDEED MAY OF THAT YEAR
AND I MOVED WITH MY FAMILY IN
THE FALL OF 1989 WHERE I WAS
ABLE TO BUILD MY OWN MONKEY LAB
AND MY TIME THERE WAS A VERY
PRODUCTIVE 1 AND I DEVELOPED
STREAMS IN THE AUDITORY MODELS
BY OTHER GROUPS INCLUDING SOME
THAT ADAPTED IT TO LANGUAGE
PROCESSING IN HUMANS.
AFTER 6 YEARS AT NIHMH, I
RECEIVED MULTIPLE JOB OFFERS
FROM,A ROUND THE UNITED STATES
AND DECIDED TO ACCEPT THE OFFER
AS FULL PROFESSOR FROM
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY JUST DOWN
THE ROAD FROM NIH ISSUES,
BECAUSE MORT AND LESLIE ARGUED
THIS WOULD MAKE IT EASIER TO
COLLABORATE.
LESLIE REMAINED A LIFE LONG
FRIEND AND COLLEAGUE AND CAME TO
VISIT ME MULTIPLE TIMES AND I'M
GRATEFUL FOR THAT FRIENDSHIP.
>> I'M MIKE BEAUCHAMP AND AM
GRATEFUL TO SHARE MEMORIES OF
LESLIE.
HERE A PICTURE THAT I TOOK IN
BETHESDA, SHE IS SMILING SWEETLY
WITH HER HANDS CROSSED THIS IS
ATYPICAL THIS PICTURE IS MORE
CHARACTERISTIC SHE'S SETTING
ALEX MARTIN STRAIGHT ON SOME
IMPORTANT POINT.
MY FAVORITE LESLIE MANNERISM IS
A EYES WIDE OPEN WITH A DOUBLE
TAKE WITH A SLIGHT RECOIL, I
FIRST ENCOUNTERED IT IN 1993
WHEN I FIRST APPROACHED ATA
CONAND ASKED IF I COULD WORK
INNER LAB WHICH WAS A BRAPPED
MIEW LEADER IN THE FIELD OF
FMRI, SHE SAID NO, THAT WOULD BE
A TERRIBLE IDEA SHE WENT ON TO
SAY IT WASN'T PERSONAL BUT NIH
IS LIKE SOMALIA RIGHT NOW
MEANING THERE WERE HUGE BATTLES
FOR THE TIME ON THE SCANNERS.
SO I TOOK HER ADVICE TO WORK
WITH TED AT MEDICAL COLLEGE OF
WISCONSIN SHE GAVE ME MORE
ADVICE WHEN HE VISITED MCW LATER
AS A MEMBER OF A ADVISORY
COMPLITEE, MY ROOM ARE MATE AND
I WERE TASKED WITH SHOWING HER
AROUND.
ON MEETING ZIAD, AND SHE SAID
YOU NEED A HAIR CUT, SHE SAID
YOU'RE A FOURTH YEAR GRAD
STUDENT AND YOU DON'T KNOW WHAT
YOU ARE GOING TO DO NEXT, I
JOINED AS A POST DOC AND STAYING
FOR THE MAXIMUM ALLOWED TIME OF
8 YEARS AND I WOULD HAVE STAYED
LONGER IF I COULD HAVE, 1 OF THE
GIFT SYSTEM THAT SHE WOULD TRAIN
THE WHOLE ENORMOUS FORCE OF HER
INTELLECT ON YOU AND GIVE HER
HER FULL ATTENTION MAKING YOU
FEEL THAT YOU REALLY MATTERED.
AND ALTHOUGH SHE TOOK SCIENCE
SERIOUSLY, LESLIE ALSO HAD A
GREAT SENSE OF FUN, HER LAUGH
WAS IRRESISTIBLE AND SHE ENJOYED
A GLASS OF WHITE WINE AS MUCH AS
ANYONE.
ONCE AT A BIRTHDAY PARTY SHE
GAVE TIPS ON HOW TO WIN AT PIN
THE TAILOT DONKEY WHICH INVOLVED
PULLING THE BLIND FOLD DOWN EVER
SO SLIGHTLY TO GIVE YOURSELF AN
ADVANTAGE.
THERE WAS ALSO THE TIME WHEN SHE
WANTED TO DEMONSTRATE HOW TO
FIGHT OFF A MUGGER SO SHE
SUMMONED ME OIEVER AND WITHOUT
MUCH WARNING GAVE ME A SOLID
PUNCH IN THE STOMACH,
FORTUNATELY THERE WEREN'T ANY
SERIOUS INJURIES, MISS YOU
LESLIE.
>> HEY, SHAKEN MERIT STAFF
SCIENTIST AT [INDISCERNIBLE]
FACILITY FOR OVER 20 YEARS AND
RECENTLY BE HEADING NORTHEAST
BUT STILL FORTUNATELY FOR ME ON
THE PAY ROLL AT NIH.
I JUST WANTED TO SAY VERY
QUICKLY, YOU ALL ARE CELEBRATING
LESLIE'S WORK SPECIAL SHE IS
SOMEONE WHO HAS ENORMOUS
INFLUENCE ON MY OWN CAREER BOTH
GETTING ME WHEN I FIRST MET HER
IN THE 19 ACHES AND THE HUMAN
BRAIN IN SAN ANTONE YOAP TEXAS
FOLLOWED BY BEING RECRUITED
PETER DECIDED HE WANTED TO HIRE
ME LESLIE WAS VERY HELPFUL IN
CONVINCING ME TO MAKE WHAT WAS A
VERY BIG MOVE BUT THE BIGGEST
IMPACT THAT SHE HAD FOR ME WAS
LIKE SO MANY WORKING ON A
SCIENTIFIC PROJECT TOGETHER IN
PERCEPTUAL DECISION MAKING BACK
IN 2004, 2003 WITH
[INDISCERNIBLE] WE STARTED OFF
TRYING TO DO A DIRECT MAPPING OF
SOME SHOUT, AND RANDOM
[INDISCERNIBLE] BUT THAT WORK
HAD SORT OF BECOME A LITTLE TOO
DETAILED ABOUT SOME TECHNICAL
ISSUES HAVING TO DO WITH
RESOLUTION AND COHERENCE OF THE
SIGNAL AND WE HAD MOVED TO A NEW
PARADIGM USING PHASES AND HOUSES
THAT BECAME A SERIES OF PAPERS,
AND THE STORY THAT I REMEMBER
MOST VIVIDLY, WAS WORKING WITH
HER, [INDISCERNIBLE] AND PETER,
AND LESLIE WOULD HAVE THESE
WEEKLY MEETINGS WORKING ON THIS
MANUSCRIPT IN THIS SPRING SO I
THOUGHT WE HAD JUST REALLY,
HAVING HER ASK THOSE OVER AND
OVER AGAIN, CAN WE MAKE THIS
CLEAR?
CAN WE SIMPLIFY IT IS WHAT HAVE
YOU WRITTEN HERE, WHAT YOU THINK
YOU ARE SEEING AND SHE WOULD
WRITE IT IN THESE VERY STRONG
RED LETTERS ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
WE WOULD BRING TO HER AND AFTER
WEEKS AND WEEKS OF THIS, WE
SUBMIT TD THE MANUSCRIPT, THING
HIS GONE WELL, WE HAD POSITIVE
FEEDBACK AND I GUESS WE'RE
GETTING CLOSE TO THE REVISION
DEADLINE AND WE WERE IN THIS AND
I STILL REMEMBER WE MUST HAVE
BEEN IN A HOTEL LOBBY OR BAR,
AND WE WERE AT THE END OF OUR
ROPES IN TERMS OF ENERGY AND
LESLIE WAS STILL ASKING
WHAT--WHAT SEEMED TO BE THE SAME
QUESTION OVER AND OVER INSISTING
WE COULD BRING THIS PAPER TO THE
NEXT LEVEL AND MAKE IT--MAKE THE
IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
IT AND WE WERE NOT GOING TO BE
ALLOWED TO GET TO SLEEP BEFORE
THAT HAPPENED.
AND SHE BROUGHT US TO THAT POINT
AND WE SUBMITTED IT WAS IT.
IT WAS 1 OF THE HIGHLIGHTS OF MY
RANDOM WALK THROUGH SCIENCE AND
THE CLARITY AND INTER RETIRED
EXPE DRIVE SO I WISH I WAS THERE
TO CELEBRATE HADDER WITH YOU ALL
BUT THAT'S MY LITTLE STORY.
OKAY, THANKS.
>> I WAS VERY INTIMIDATED BUT
SHE MADE ME FEEL COMFORTABLE AND
HIRED ME TO JOIN HER LAB AND IT
WAS TRULY WONDERFUL EXPERIENCE
TO WORK WITH HER AND I LEARNED
SO MUCH FROM HER.
THE DOOR WAS ALWAYS OPEN AND SHE
WAS VERY SUPPORTIVE BOTH
PROFESSIONALLY AND PERSONALLY.
I THINK THE BEST MEMORY I HAVE
OF A TIME WE SPENT WORKING ON
PAPERS, AND ESPECIALLY ON THE
FEEDBACK SHE PRACTICES VIEDED ON
PAPER COPIES AND I REALIZE I
STILL DO THAT NOWADAYS AS 1 OF
HER LEGACY.
WHAT ALSO COMES TO MY MIND WHEN
I THINK OF HER OF THE WORDS
DEMANDING AND RIGOROUS, WHILE
SOMETIMES CHALERGING, THIS WAS
KEY TO HELP ME GROW AND GIVE ME
CONFIDENCE.
I ALSO LEARNED FROM HER, THE
TERM SERENDIPITY AS A WAY TO
ALWAYS STAY OPEN TO WHAT THE
DATA ARE TELLING US.
FINALLY AT THE PERSONAL LEVEL, I
WILL ALWAYS REMEMBER HER SUPPORT
DURING MY PREGNANCIES WHEN I WAS
IN HER LAB.
SHE GAVE ME STRENGTH AND
CONFIDENCE IN THOSE SPECIAL
MOMENTS OF LIFE TO FIND THE
RIGHT BALANCE AS A WOMAN IN
SCIENCE.
SHE ALWAYS LISTENED, AND TOOK
TIME TO ALSO SHARE HER OWN
EXPERIENCE WITH ME.
SHE AS A SPECIAL PLACE IN MY
MEMORY AND I WILL ALWAYS MISS
HER.
>> HI, EVERYONE THIS IS
[INDISCERNIBLE] FROM MIGUEL
UNIVERSITY IN MONITOR REAL, AM
REALLY SORRY I COULD NOT BE
PRESENT WITH YOU DURING THIS
EVENT IN HONOR OF OUR COLLEAGUE
LESLIE.
I HAVE BOOKED A TRIP TO EUROPE
AND IT WOULD HAVE BEEN DIFFICULT
TO CANCEL AND SO I DECIDED TO DO
THIS VIDEO INSTEAD, FIRST OF ALL
I WOULD LIKE TO SAY THAT LESLIE
PLAYED A MAJOR ROLE IN MY
CAREER, NOT ONLY AS A MENTOR BUT
ALSO AS A FRIEND.
I MET AND WELCOMER WITH LESLIE
WHEN I DID MY SEBATICLE YEAR IN
1995 AND 96 BECAUSE AT THAT TIME
I WAS INTERESTED IN MODEL
LEARNING AND SHE HAD ALREADY
DONE SOME WORK AT A TIME WHEN
SHE ACCEPTED TO SUPPORT THIS
WORK.
SO IT WAS PROBABLY 1 OF THE BEST
EXPERIENCES IN MY LIFE WORKING
WITH HER AT NIH, I REMEMBER
DOING ALL THIS OVER 3 SESSIONS
OF SCANS WITH SUBJECTS ON THE
SUNDAY MORNING, SUNDAY AFTERNOON
AND THEN AUSTHE MONDAY NIGHT AT
THE 1.9 PIECE CANNON AT THE
TIME, WE HAD A FEW HICK UPS,
THESE WERE THE FIRST DAYS OF
FMRI AND SO WE HAD ACUTE
PROBLEMS BUT NEVERTHELESS, I
THINK IT WAS A REAL SUCCESS AND
THERE WAS SOMETHING THAT HELPED
ME A LOT IN MY CAREER.
IT WAS VERY PRODUCTIVE IN FOR A
PERIOD OF 3 MONTHS THAT I SPENT
THERE AND QUITE A FEW TRIPS
AFTERWARDS TO NIH TO CONTINUE
ANALYSIS BECAUSE THEN THE
ACTIVITY WE WERE ABLE TO ACHIEVE
WAS 9 PAPERS TOGETHER, OUT OF
THE WORK THAT WE DID AND ALSO
OTHER WORK THAT I HAD INVITED TO
BE PART OF 1 THING I WILL
REMEMBER THAT I DO REMEMBER VERY
WELL IS THE ABILITY, THE
DISCUSSION AND THE DISCUSSION I
HAD BUT ALSO SEVERAL DINNERS
THAT WE HAD TO GET IN BETHESDA,
IT WAS ALWAYS A PLEASURE SEEING
HER AND TALK ABOUT THE DIFFERENT
THINGS IN LIFE.
I MUST SAY THAT SHE ALSO HELPED
ME A LOT ALONG THE WAY DO DURING
MY CAREER AND PHASES OF
PROPROMOTIONS AT [INDISCERNIBLE]
UNIVERSITY AND UNIVERSITY OF
MONTREAL AND AGAIN AT MIG
DUALALE.
I REALLY, REALLY MISS HER AND
WILL BE MISSED BY EVERYONE.
SO HAVE A GREAT SYMPOSIUM AND
WISH YOU ALL THE BEST.
>> HI, MY NAME IS VINCE CLARK.
I WAS AN EARLY POST DOC IN LBC
WHEN RESLY TOOK OVER AS LAB
VECTOR OUR FIRST MEETING ON MY
FIRST DAY THERE SHE WALKED UP TO
ME BEFORE SHE SAID ANYTHING ELSE
SHE TOLD ME TO CUT MY HAIR.
I HAD A PONY TAIL AND IT WAS
GOOD ADVICE AND SHE GAVE ME A
LOT OF GOOD ADVICE OVER MY TIME
HERE.
I WAS ALSO INTERESTED IN HER
INSIGHTS AND APPRECIATED HER
MANY ABILITIES AND I WILL MISS
HER ENERGY PASSION FOR KNOWLEDGE
AND GREAT SCIENCE, HER CONSTANT
WORK AND THE FACT THAT SHE DID
THIS FOR MANY YEARS WHEN SHE WAS
HAVING HEALTH ISSUES THAT WOULD
HAVE STOPPED MANY PEOPLE, IT
DIDN'T STOP LESLIE.
THE CALIBER OF SCIENTIST HER
SPEAKING HER AT THIS MEETING,A
TESTS NOT ONLY TO HER GREAT
INFLUENCE AS A SCIENTIST BUT THE
RESPECT AND LOVE THAT WE ALL
HAVE FOR HER AS A PERSON.
WE WILL MISS HER GREATLY.
THANK YOU.
>> SUMMARIZE LESLIE'S IMPACT ON
ME IN 3 WEB CONNECTED QUESTIONS
SHE OFTEN ASKED ME WHEN I WENT
FOR A MEETING, WHAT QUESTION, A
WHERE QUESTION AND A HOW
QUESTION.
FIRST QUESTION AND I'M PRETTY
SURE MANY OF YOU HAVE HEARD THIS
FROM HER, WHAT IS YOUR
HYPOTHESIS?
SCIENTISTS LAND ON THIS SPECTRUM
I THINK IN THE WAY THEY PRACTICE
SCIENCE.
SOME ARE VERY DATA DRIVEN, AND
SOME ARE ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE,
VERY, VERY HYPOTHESIS THERE
DRIVEN AND LESLIE WAS ON THE FAR
END OF THE HYPOTHESIS DRIVEN
SIDE.
I CAME FROM A DATA DRIVEN
BACKGROUND, IT'S NOT THAT I
DIDN'T KNOW ABOUT HYPOTHESIS
TESTING BUT THE FACT THAT THEY
ASKED THIS QUESTION, KIND OF
FORCED ME TO MAKE THIS
HYPOTHESIS EXPLICIT TO HAVE MAIN
HYPOTHESIS, HAVE ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS AND TO THINK ABOUT
YOUR EXPERIMENT AND YOUR
PREDICTIONS IN LIGHT OF THOSE
HYPOTHESIS, AND DOING THIS,
MAKING THEM EXPLICIT ACTUALLY
HELPED THE DESIGN, MADE THE
EXPERIMENT BETTER, MADE MY
DIRECTION IMPROVE THE DIRECTION
OF THE EXPERIMENT AND I THINK
THAT'S BASICALLY 1 OF THE MAIN
THINGS I LEARNED FROM LESLIE AND
SHE ACTUALLY KIND OF POUNDED
THIS IN MEETING AND MADE
EVERYONE THINK ABOUT IT.
THE SECOND QUESTION WAS, WHERE
IS THIS GOING?
SO BY WHERE OBVIOUSLY SHE MEANS
POSITION IN SPACE, SHE MEANT THE
WAY YOUR RESEARCH AND YOUR HOLE
RESEARCH PROGRAM IS SITUATED IN
THE GENERAL SCIENTIFIC LANDSCAPE
SHE MADE YOU THINK ABOUT HOW
THIS CONNECTS TO ANATOMY,
PHYSIOLOGY, THE NEXT FINDING,
HOW IS IT PUSHING THE
BOUNDARIES, HOW IS IT MOVING THE
FIELD FORWARD, SHE MADE YOU
THINK ABOUT THESE THINGS AND I
THINK THIS IS PARTLY BECAUSE OF
HER BREDTH IN THE FIELD, SHE HAD
A WIDE KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD
BECAUSE SHE HAD HER FOOT IN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY AND HUMAN
FMRI AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGY SO SHE
KIND OF THOUGHT ABOUT EVERY
EXPERIMENT AS A PIECE OF THE
PUZZLE AND DIFFERENT PIECES OF
THE PUZZLE HAD TO FIT TOGETHER
AND SHE MADE YOU THINK ABOUT
YOUR PUZZLE PIECE AND HOW IT
FITS WITH THE REST OF THE
PUZZLE.
AND I THINK THAT WAS REALLY
IMPORTANT FOR ME, ESPECIALLY NOW
THAT I'M LIKE TRANSITIONING TO A
MORE INDEPENDENT POSITION.
THE LAST QUESTION, WHICH SHE
INVARIABLY ASKED IN EVERY
MEETING IS HOW ARE YOU DOING,
HOW IS SO AND SO DOING BASICALLY
SHE ASKED ME AND MAINLY ABOUT
THE POST BACKS I WORKED WITH BUT
SOMETIMES ABOUT OTHER
COLLABORATORS, ABOUT PEOPLE THAT
SHE KNEW YOU KNEW ABOUT.
SHE KIND OF KEPT TABS ON PEOPLE
AND THE REASON WAS THAT SHE
REALLY, REALLY CARED ABOUT HER
MENTEES, HER COLLABORATORS AND
ABOUT THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
AT LARGE, AND SHE WAS OFTEN
ASKED TO RECOMMEND PEOPLE FOR
AWARDS AND SHE WAS ABOUT
THINKING ABOUT THE GENDER
BALANCE AND PROMOTING PEOPLE
THAT NEED PROMOTION, AND I
THINK, SHE KIND OF BY EXAMPLE
TAUGHT ME THAT YOU CAN BE A
SCIENTIST AS IMPACTFUL AS LESLIE
AND STILL CARE ABOUT THE PEOPLE
AROUND YOU AND STILL CARE ABOUT
THE COMMUNITY AROUND YOU AND
SPENT TIME HELPING PEOPLE AND
PROMOTING PEOPLE.
I MISS HER A LOT AND AND I WILL
CARRY EVERYTHING SHE HAS TOUT ME
WITH MY SHORT TIME WITH HER
THROUGHOUT MY CAREER.
>> MY LIFE I HAD THE CHANCE TO
MEET 1 GIANT, HER NAME WAS
LESLIE UNG ERLEIDER, I CANNOT
SAY SHE WAS A MODEL TO ME
BECAUSE SHE WAS SO FAR ABOVE
ANYTHING I COULD DREAM OF ARK
COMPLISHING.
YET, SHE WAS AND STILL IS, A
SOURCE OF INSPIRATION TO ME, SHE
WAS FAMOUS FOR BUILDING UP 1 OF
THE MOST IMPORTANT AREAS IN
NEUROSCIENCE YET SHE WAS NOT
ATTACHED TO THEORIES EACH AT
OWN, SHE WAS ATTACHED TO DATA,
[INDISCERNIBLE] DATA AND HOW
THEY FIT WITH THE
[INDISCERNIBLE] ABOUT THE BRAIN
AND MIND.
SHE WAS KNOWN FOR A GREAT
SCRIEWKS TO THE TWEPMENT OF
NEUROIMAGING, YET SHE WILL NEVER
GET DISTRACTED BY TOOLS OR
SOPHISTICATED ANINAL SIS, SHE
WILL BE ABLE TO GO IN A SECOND,
BEYOND THE [INDISCERNIBLE]
DEMONSTRATION TO PINPOINT THE
REMARKABLE CONTRIBUTION TO OUR
UNDERSTANDING OF THE BRAIRN AND
MIND.
SHE WAS 1 OF THE TRUE SCIENTISTS
FOR WHICH SCIENCE IS NEVER A
QUESTION OF EGO, IT IS JUST
DOING SCIENCE, THE BEST SCIENCE
POSSIBLE SPECIAL SHE GAVE ALL
OUR STRENGTHS TO THIS QUEST.
YET, LESLIE WAS NOT A
DISEMBODIED MIND, SHE WAS WARM
AND HUMAN.
IT IS NOT SURPRISING SHE BECAME
PASSIONATED ABOUT EMOTION.
SOMETIMES I STILL DON'T REALIZE
THE CHANCE I HAD TO WORK WITH
THIS GIANT.
YET MORE OFTEN, I STILL DON'T
REALIZE THAT HER, LESLIE IS A
WOMAN WITH A SPARKLE WITH HER
EYES, A WOMAN SO CLEARLY
EXPRESSING HERSELF, THE WOMAN
WITH A 1 LINE DIRECT E-MAILS
WHICH COULD MAKE ME HAPPY FOR A
WEEK, THE WOMAN WAS ALWAYS
AVAILABLE FOR MENTEES AND THE
WOMAN WHO COULD STOP EVERYTHING
FOR A [INDISCERNIBLE] IS GONE.
I SPENT MY TIME BEING
[INDISCERNIBLE] INTIMIDATED BY
EVERYONE IN THE SCIENCE WORLD
YET SHE NEVER MADE ME FEEL
INTIMIDATED, THAT'S HOW
WONDERFUL SHE WAS.
>>THE LONG AWAITED LUNCH
IS HERE.
IT'S--FEEL FREE TO FIND PLACES
TO EAT.
WE WILL BE BACK HERE A FEW
MINUTES BEFORE 1:45 SO WE CAN
GET THE AFTERNOON OFF TO A GOOD
>>LESLIE'S FAMILY IS ORGANIZING
A MEMORIAL AT THE GARDEN OF
REMEMBRANCE TOMORROW MORNING AT
10:30.
IF YOU'RE INTERESTED IN
ATTENDING, PLEASE JUST CATCH ME
ANYTIME TODAY AND LET ME KNOW.
AND THEN THERE'S ALSO A LUNCHEON
FOLLOWING, IF YOU WANT TO ATTEND
THAT LET ME KNOW AS WELL.
THERE IS A RECEPTION RIGHT AFTER
WE FINISH THIS AFTERNOON'S
SESSION, IN THE FAES TERRACE,
JOIN US THERE FOR SOME HORS
D'OEUVRES AND A SLIDE SHOW WITH
PICTURES THAT PEOPLE HAVE
CONTRIBUTED FROM AROUND THE
WORLD FOR THIS, SO IT'S -- IT
WOULD BE FUN TO SEE YOU LOOK AT
THAT, A WHO'S WHO SLIDE SHOW,
SOME PICTURES HAVE NO CAPTIONS,
IF YOU CAN TELL US WHO IS WHO,
THAT WOULD BE GREAT.
THERE'S A LOT OF HISTORY IN THE
PICTURES, SO PLEASE JOIN US FOR
THAT.
SO IT'S BEEN REALLY LOVELY
HEARING FROM EVERYONE ABOUT
THEIR SCIENCE, AND THEIR MARKS
AND REMEMBRANCES OF LESLIE.
IT'S WEIRD GOING LAST BECAUSE
PRETTY MUCH EVERYBODY HAS BEEN
SAID AT THIS POINT.
I FEEL LIKE I WORKED WITH LESLIE
FOR 18 YEARS, I WAS A STAFF
SCIENTIST WITH LESLIE FROM 2002
TO 2020.
I'M THRILLED TO HAVE THIS
OPPORTUNITY TO SHARE A FEW
MEMORIES OF MY TIME WITH HER.
>> I'M JUST SAY HOW I CAME TO
THE NIH WHILE HE'S FIXING THAT.
I SPENT A COUPLE YEARS IN KAREN
BERMAN'S LAB WHERE I LEARNED
NEUROIMAGING, NEW TO
NEUROSCIENCE, IN KAREN'S LAB WE
WERE DOING SCHIZOPHRENIA, I KNOW
NOTHING ABOUT THE BRAIN, LET ME
LEARN BASIC FUNCTION FIRST.
I TALKED TO JIM HAXBY, I CAME TO
YOU AND ASKED IF I COULD JOIN
THE LAB.
DO SOME NORMAL HUMAN BRAIN
FUNCTION STUDIES.
YOU WERE LIKE, YEAH, SURE.
SO, I SHOW UP ON MY FIRST DAY,
MARCH, 2002.
I WALKED INTO JIM'S OFFICE, I
SAID, SO, JIM, I'M HERE,
STARTING IN THE LAB TODAY.
WHAT PROJECT SHALL WE TALK
ABOUT.
HE SAYS, OH, ACTUALLY, I'M
LEAVING.
I'M GOING TO PRINCETON.
SO WHY DON'T YOU TALK TO ALEX
AND LESLIE AND FIGURE SOMETHING
OUT.
I DID.
THEY WERE HAPPY TO HAVE ME.
THAT'S HOW I STARTED WITH
LESLIE.
I'M GOING TO RUN OUT OF STORIES.
[LAUGHTER]
IN THE 18 YEARS WITH LESLIE I
WENT FROM BEING INTIMIDATED BY
HER BRILLIANCE, TERRIFIED TO
PASS HER IN THE HALLWAY.
I BECAME COMFORTABLE IN HER
PRESENCE AND COULD WALK IN HER
OFFICE ANYTIME FOR ANYTHING.
I REMEMBER A TIME VERY EARLY ON,
I HAD JUST STARTED IN THE LAB.
LUIZ AND I HAD BEEN WORKING
TOGETHER.
LESLIE SENT AN E-MAIL.
I DID NOTHING ABOUT IT, I ASSUME
LUIZ WOULD RESPOND.
I THINK LUIZ DIDN'T.
A WEEK LATER LESLIE WALKED, SHE
STORMED INTO MY OFFICE, SHE CAME
IN, SHE WALKED UP TO ME, LOOKED
ME IN THE EYE, POINTED HER
FINGER STRAIGHT AT ME AND SAID,
YOU!
YOU NEED TO COME SEE ME!
I WAS TERRIFIED, OF COURSE.
I FINALLY MUSTERED UP THE
COURAGE TO ACTUALLY GO SEE HER
THE NEXT DAY.
FULLY EXPECTING SHE WAS GOING TO
BE MAD AT ME.
SHE WAS QUITE THE OPPOSITE.
I WENT INTO HER OFFICE.
SO, HOW IS THE DAY LOOKING?
SHE WANTED TO TALK ABOUT THE
RESULTS.
TO SEE HOW THE STUDY WAS GOING.
SO WE HAD A GREAT CONVERSATION.
IT BECAME SO EASY TO TALK TO HER
AFTER THAT.
SO, IN THE 18 YEARS I SPENT WITH
HER, I REALLY -- 18 IS JUST
ONE-THIRD OF HER LONG CAREER,
BUT IN THOSE 18 YEARS I GOT TO
SEE REALLY UP CLOSE HOW SHE DID
SCIENCE, AND IT WAS JUST -- THE
SCIENCE WAS ABOUT A LOT OF
THINGS.
SHE HAD LARGE PROGRAM.
AND I SAW HER THROUGH FIVE BSC
REVIEWS, MANY PEOPLE HAVE
MENTIONED THE BSC REVIEWS AS A
DAUNTING ENDEAVOR.
I GOT TO SEE REALLY UP CLOSE AND
PERSONAL HOW SHE THOUGHT ABOUT
HER RESEARCH AND HOW SHE
MOTIVATED HER STUDIES.
SO I REALLY SAW HER, BASICALLY
WAS ABLE TO WITNESS THE
GROUNDBREAKING SCIENCE, WHICH
INCLUDED AS SHOWN HERE, THIS IS
JUST A NETWORK DIAGRAM OF THE
KEY WORDS FROM HER PAPERS DURING
THAT TIME BETWEEN 2002 AND 2020.
AND IT INVOLVED STUDIES ON THE
MECHANISM OF VISUAL ATTENTION,
OBJECT VISION, MORE AND MORE,
MORE RECENTLY, FACE PROCESSING
AND FACIAL EXPRESSION
PROCESSING.
SO THIS IS THE MOMENT WHEN I
KIND OF LEARNED HOW LESLIE DID
SCIENCE.
YOU COULD SEE SHE HAD THIS LASER
FOCUS ON THE MINUTE DETAILS OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN, AND IN THE
NEXT MOMENT SHE HAD THIS
BIRDSEYE VIEW OF THE BIGGER
PICTURE.
EVERYTHING IN BETWEEN.
IT WAS AMAZING TO BE PART OF
THAT.
WHAT AMAZED ME WAS HOW
EFFORTLESSLY SHE GROUNDED
QUESTIONS IN NEUROANATOMY, SHE
SKILLFULLY PUT FINDINGS IN
PERSPECTIVE WITH EXISTING
LITERATURE AND BRAVELY TOOK
CHANCES WITH NEW METHODS.
I STARTED A STUDY AFTER LUIZ AND
I FINISHED THE fMRI STUDY, SHE
WAS ON BOARD, YEAH, LET'S TRY
IT.
OF COURSE HOW CLEARLY SHE
COMMUNICATED HER SCIENCE.
THROUGH ALL OF THIS, I OF COURSE
LEARNED SO, SO, SO MUCH.
BUT NOT ONLY DID I GET TO SEE
THE SCIENCE IN ACTION, I GOT TO
SEE UP CLOSE WHO SHE DID IT WITH
AND HOW SHE DID IT.
ALONG WITH WITNESSING ALL THE
GROUNDBREAKING SCIENCE, I GOT A
CHANCE TO WATCH HER BREAK GROUND
FOR A LOT OF THE JUNIOR
SCIENTISTS.
AND SHE WOULD CALL ME TO HER
OFFICE WHEN SHE WAS MEETING WITH
HER MENTEES FOR THE OFF CHANCE I
MIGHT BE ABLE TO OFFER SOME
ADVICE, ON DESIGN OR ANALYSIS,
AND THIS GAVE ME THAT UNIQUE
PRIVILEGE TO BE IN THE ROOM
DURING INTENSE DISCUSSIONS WITH
HER MENTEES ABOUT DATA.
AND THERE WERE ALWAYS THE
GRILLING QUESTIONS OF WHY.
OH, BUT WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?
AND REALLY EXASPERATED, THAT
DOESN'T EVEN MAKE SENSE!
BUT THERE WAS ALSO A LOT OF
PATIENCE AND A LOT OF EXCITEMENT
ABOUT WHAT THE DATA WERE TELLING
US.
AND THERE WAS A LOT OF LAUGHTER.
AND THE MEETINGS ALMOST
INVARIABLY, NO MATTER HOW THEY
STARTED, THEY ALMOST ALWAYS
ENDED UP WITH QUESTIONS ABOUT
HOW WERE OTHER THINGS IN OUR
LIVES?
WHAT ELSE WAS GOING ON?
SO SHE WAS REALLY TOUGH, AS MANY
HAVE SAID BEFORE.
SHE WAS TOUGH ON OUR IDEAS.
I THINK THIS PUSHED US TO REALLY
MOTIVATE OUR STUDIES BETTER.
SHE WAS TOUGH ON OUR DESIGN,
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN, THAT LED US
TO DEVISE BETTER CONTROLS FOR
EXPERIMENTS.
SHE WAS ALSO TOUGH ON HOW WE
INTERPRETED THE DATA, WHICH LED
US TO PUT OUR FINDINGS IN
PERSPECTIVE WITH WHAT WAS OUT
THERE, THIS MADE US READ MORE.
AND OF COURSE SHE WAS SO, SO
TOUGH ON OUR WRITING.
WHICH LED US OF COURSE TO
EXPRESS OURSELVES MORE CLEARLY.
YES, SHE WAS TOUGH.
BUT HER TOUGHNESS ONLY LED US TO
WORK HARDER, DIG DEEPER, FOCUS
MORE SHARPLY AND OF COURSE THINK
BROADER.
BUT THE THING I MOST ADMIRED
ABOUT LESLIE WAS WHAT YOU SEE IS
WHAT YOU GET.
THERE WAS NO SECOND GUESSING.
SHE LAID IT ALL OUT THERE.
SHE WAS DIRECT, CLEAR, NEVER
SUGARCOATED EVERYTHING.
THIS WAS TRUE WITH COMMENTS ON
MANUSCRIPT OR YOUR TALK, IN MY
CASE CRITIQUING YOUR DRIVING
SKILLS.
[LAUGHTER]
TO THIS DAY, WHEN I'M REVERSING
OUT OF A DRIVEWAY, I USED TO
DRIVE LESLIE SOMETIMES AND HER
DRIVEWAY WAS LONG AND NARROW,
EVERY TIME I PULLED OUT OF THE
DRIVEWAY SHE WOULD SAY, HUH, SO
DIFFICULT FOR YOU, ISN'T IT?
[LAUGHTER]
I THINK OF HER PRETTY MUCH EVERY
DAY AS I PULL OUT OF MY
DRIVEWAY.
IN HER OWN WAY THOUGH HER ASTUTE
MENTORSHIP HELPED BREAK GROUND
FOR MANY SCIENTISTS AROUND THE
WORLD.
I FORGOT TO SHOW THIS BEAUTIFUL
PICTURE OF HER OFFICE.
I'M SURE YOU ALL HAVE BEEN IN
THIS ROOM MANY TIMES, SOME OF
YOU HAVE.
THAT'S WHERE WE WOULD DO THE
HUDDLES, WITH THE WHY QUESTIONS.
SO HERE'S WHAT I'M TALKING
ABOUT, MOSTLY THIS PROLIFERATION
OF THE NEXT GEN OF SCIENTISTS
SHE SUPPORTED, ALL AROUND THE
WORLD NOW.
AND I THINK MY ASSOCIATION WITH
LESLIE HELPED ME BUILD THESE
DEEP FRIENDSHIPS AND REALLY
FRUITFUL COLLABORATIONS WITH
MANY OF YOU IN THIS ROOM.
FOR THAT I'M REALLY GRATEFUL FOR
THAT LESLIE BROUGHT ME IN ON
THAT.
YEAH, I WILL JUST LEAVE SAYING
LESLIE IS NO LONGER WITH US BUT
SHE LIVES IN OUR HEADS.
MOST PEOPLE SAY IN OUR HEARTS,
SHE'S THERE TOO BUT SHE'S IN MY
HEAD TO CHIDE AND GUIDE ME.
I'M SURE YOU FEEL THE SAME WAY.
THANK YOU FOR LISTENING.
[APPLAUSE]
>> MARILYN SAID GREAT SLIDE.
>> OH, THANK YOU.
>> ALL RIGHT.
LET'S KICK OFF THIS AFTERNOON
WITH NEXT SPEAKER, TANIA
PASTERNAK, CURRENTLY SCIENTIFIC
REVIEW OFFICER AT NINDS, AND
PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF
NEUROSCIENCE AT THE UNIVERSITY
OF ROCHESTER.
TANII WAS A GOOD FRIEND OF
LESLIE, THEY ALSO WROTE A REVIEW
PAPER TOGETHER I BELIEVE ON
VENTRAL AND DORSAL CORTICAL
PROCESSING SPEEDS.
WE'RE EXCITED TO LISTEN TO THE
TALK ABOUT THE SCIENCE YOU'VE
DONE.
THANK YOU FOR BEING HERE.
>> I'M PROBABLY AS FREAKED OUT
AS LESLIE WAS BEFORE BSC RIGHT
NOW.
I WAS PROBABLY THE LAST PERSON
ON THE BSC WHO REVIEWED HER WHEN
SHE WAS PRESENTING.
I DID NOT GUESS THAT SHE WAS
THAT NERVOUS.
IT WAS AS ALWAYS THIS REMARKABLE
REPRESENTATION, COOL AS
CUCUMBER.
HOLD ON, LET ME JUST DO
SOMETHING.
I MIGHT JUST SAY A FEW WORDS
BEFORE I GO AHEAD AND -- I'LL GO
AHEAD AND TELL YOU THE SCIENCE I
WAS DOING UNTIL RECENTLY, LIKELY
THE LAST SCIENTIFIC TALK I'M
GIVING.
I'M NOT NERVOUS, I'M HAPPY TO
SHARE WITH YOU ANYTHING.
I WISH LESLIE WAS HERE, I WOULD
LOVE TO HAVE HER FEEDBACK ON THE
LAST FEW THINGS THAT I'VE BEEN
DOING.
SHE'S BEEN MY SOUNDING BOARD
EVER SINCE I BECAME FRIENDS WITH
HER, WAS IT 1995?
I DIDN'T HAVE A MONKEY
PHYSIOLOGY LAB, I STARTED
WORKING WITH MONKEYS, BEFORE
THAT I WAS DOING WORK WITH
FELINES.
I DECIDED I REALLY WANTED TO
LEARN TO DO PHYSIOLOGY SO I
DECIDED TO SPEND A SABBATICAL.
IT'S NOT WORKING?
IT'S WORKING!
IT'S FINE, I THINK.
IN 95 I DECIDED I'M GOING TO
START DOING PHYSIOLOGY, AND WAS
RECORDING FROM MONKEYS, I WAS
DOING, CAME TO WORK IN BOB'S
LAB, BUILDING 49.
I BECAME FRIENDS WITH LESLIE.
I'VE LEARNED A LOT FROM BOB,
REALLY LEARNED A LOT FROM BOB, A
LOT OF ANATOMY WHICH I NEEDED TO
LEARN, SPENDING TIME TOGETHER.
IT WAS REALLY AN IMPORTANT --
VERY IMPORTANT PART OF MY CAREER
ACTUALLY BECAUSE AFTER I WENT
BACK TO ROCHESTER WHERE I WAS
FOR MANY YEARS, I TOTALLY
CHANGED MY LAB AND I STARTED
DOING DIFFERENT WORK, SOME I
WILL PRESENT TO YOU TODAY,
HOPEFULLY BRIEFLY.
LESLIE WAS ALWAYS IN MY LIFE,
AND WE TALKED A LOT.
I CALLED HER.
I DIDN'T LIKE THE E-MAIL THING,
I WOULD USUALLY CALL HER, READY
TO TALK.
WE'LL TALK.
SHE'S BEEN THERE FOR ME.
WE TALKED ABOUT KIDS, ALL THE
ISSUES WE'VE GONE THROUGH, WE
TALKED ABOUT LIFE.
I TALKED TO HER BEFORE DECIDING
TO MOVE HERE BEFORE CLOSING MY
LAB.
ONE OF THE ATTRACTIONS FOR ME
BESIDES HAVING MY GRANDDAUGHTERS
HERE IS HAVING HER.
IT DIDN'T WORK OUT.
THAT PART OF ME -- OKAY, I'M
GOING TO GIVE YOU A FEET FOR
WHAT SOME OF THE WORK I'VE DONE
IN THE PAST SOME NUMBER OF YEARS
OR YEARS OF PAPERS THAT WERE
PUBLISHED, THE WORK HAS BEEN
DONE AT UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER,
NOW AT NINDS DEALING WITH BRAIN
INITIATIVE APPLICATIONS.
IT'S EXCITING TO STAY IN THE
FIELD.
OKAY.
SO, I'M GOING TO START BY TRYING
TO EXPLAIN -- IS THIS WORKING?
YES.
BY GIVING YOU A FEEL FOR
SOMETHING THAT MOST OF YOU KNOW
PRETTY INTUITIVE, MEMORY-GUIDED
DECISIONS ABOUT SENSORY
ENVIRONMENT.
THIS IS WHAT THE GUY IS DOING,
CROSSING THE STREET, THE STREETS
OF HANOI WHERE TRAFFIC WAS
ABSURD.
BASICALLY WHAT HE HAS TO DO IS
TO IDENTIFY CURRENT STIMULI,
DIRECTION, SPEED OF CARS,
MOTORCYCLES, SO FORTH, MAINTAIN
PRESENTATION OF THE SIGNALS THAT
ARE NOT LONGER, NO LONGER
PRESENT, AND COMPARE CURRENT
STIMULI TO THOSE HE HAS SEEN
BEFORE.
WORKING MEMORY IS ONE OF THE
COMPONENTS OF WHAT HE HAS TO DO
SO GIVING THE DEFINITION.
RETENTION MANIPULATION OF
INFORMATION NEEDED TO GUIDE
ONGOING BEHAVIOR.
WHAT NEURAL MECHANISMS UNDERLIE
SUCH BEHAVIOR.
A BIG QUESTION.
OF COURSE -- WE'RE USING
MONKEYS.
AND THE ENVIRONMENT AT LEAST
UNTIL QUITE RECENTLY HAS BEEN
QUITE REDUCED, WE WERE ABLE TO
USE TO STUDY MONKEY -- TO STUDY
PRIMATES, AND IT WAS -- THAT
GIVES A FEEL FOR WHAT ACTUALLY
HAS BEEN -- HOW MANY OF US HAVE
BEEN DOING THIS WORK FOR A VERY
LONG TIME.
I'M JUST DISCOVERING NOW A LOT
OF VERY EXCITING BRAIN
INITIATIVE APPLICATIONS, WE'RE
ACTUALLY A LOT MORE -- THE
BEHAVIOR IS IN A MORE
NATURALISTIC ENVIRONMENT
BECOMING POSSIBLE, QUITE
EXCITING.
THE MONKEY WOULD MAINTAIN ITS
GAZE, SO I'M JUST GIVING YOU A
FEEL FOR THE TASK WE'VE BEEN
USING.
IT'S MEMORY FOR DIRECTION OF
MOTION COMPARISON TASK.
THE MONKEY IS COMPARING TWO
STIMULI, IT FIXATES, STIMULI
APPEAR TWICE.
THERE'S AN S1, S2.
I USED TO CALL IT, MANY OF US,
SAMPLE TEST.
I'M REFERRING IN MY WORK,
REFERRING TO THE STIMULI AS S1
AND S2.
THERE'S A POST-S2 PERIOD AND THE
MONKEY WOULD HAVE TO REPORT TWO
STIMULI, THE CURRENT ONE AND
PREVIOUS ONE MOVED IN DIFFERENT
DIRECTIONS WITH A BUTTON PUSH.
THE OTHER SET OF TRIALS, TWO
STIMULI WOULD MOVE IN THE SAME
DIRECTION AND HERE THE ANIMAL
WILL HAVE TO REPORT IT BY
LOOKING -- MAKING TO THE RIGHT
OR PRESSING THE BUTTON.
IT'S A MULTI-COMPONENT TASK, A
LOT OF THINGS HAPPENING IN IT.
AGAIN, MOST OF YOU, MANY OF YOU
AT NIMH, ARE FAMILIAR WITH THIS
KIND OF TASK.
I'M GOING TO TAKE YOU THROUGH IT
BECAUSE IT GUIDED THE WAY I'VE
BEEN ANALYZING THE DATA.
SO HERE IS A SET OF COMPONENTS
OF THE TRIAL.
I'M JUST GOING TO SHOW YOU,
AGAIN, SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT
FORMAT.
HERE IS ONE TRIAL, SECOND
STIMULUS MOVING DIFFERENT
DIRECTIONS, OR MOVING THE SAME
DIRECTION.
THE TIMING IS HIGHLY
PREDICTABLE, NOTHING IS
RANDOMIZED BECAUSE I'M A CONTROL
FREAK, I LIKE TO KNOW WHAT THE
ANIMAL WILL ANTICIPATE.
THE FIRST -- CAN YOU SEE THIS?
YEAH, GOOD.
THE FIRST THING WHICH COMES ON,
ANIMAL PREPARES FOR IT.
THERE'S SOME PERIOD OF TIME,
IDENTIFY THE DIRECTION OF
MOTION, REMEMBER, RETAIN
INFORMATION, PREPARE FOR SECOND
STIMULUS, IDENTIFY THE
DIRECTION, COMPARE AND DECIDE.
AND SO THERE'S A VERY LARGE
NUMBER OF COMPONENTS ACTUALLY
THAT WE HAVE TO MAKE SENSE OUT
OF WHEN WE RECORD FROM NEURONS
DURING THIS KIND OF TASK.
YOU CAN SEE I KEEP REMINDING
YOU, I HAVE THIS CUTE MONKEY
HERE WHO ACTUALLY HAS A BIG
QUESTION, ARE THE TWO STIMULI
THE SAME OR DIFFERENT?
OKAY.
AND THERE'S A REWARD WHEN IT'S
CORRECT.
OF COURSE, I'M SHOWING IT.
IT'S ALMOST LEGIT ON MY PART
BECAUSE FIRST OF ALL I WANTED TO
TELL YOU I DO HAVE A PAPER WITH
LESLIE, IT WAS FANTASTIC WHEN
SHE APPROACHED ME, ASKED ME IF I
WANTED TO JOIN HER IN WRITING A
REVIEW FOR VISUAL KNEW SCIENCE,
WE HAD AN UPDATE FOR THE BOOK
THAT WAS PUT TOGETHER, I WAS
THRILLED.
SHE TOOK CARE OF THE VENTRAL
STREAM, I TOOK CARE OF THE
DORSAL STREAM.
IT MAKES ME PART OF THE FAMILY.
WHEN YOU TRIED TO FIGURE OUT HOW
THE BRAIN SOLVES THE RATHER
COMPLEX PROBLEM, SO NATURALLY,
I'M JUST GOING TO POINT TO TWO
REGIONS.
BUT IN FACT, I'M A VISION
SCIENTIST, AND WHEN YOU LOOK AT
THIS BRAIN, WHEN I WAS DOING ALL
OF THE VISION WORK I WAS DOING,
I REALLY DIDN'T CARE ABOUT THIS
PART.
WE THOUGHT ABOUT MOTION
PERCEPTION, COLOR VISION, BUT
EVERYTHING ENDED HERE.
I KNEW ABOUT THE TWO STREAMS BUT
SOMEHOW THIS PART WAS INVASIVE.
IT DIDN'T MAKE ANY SENSE TO ME
AT THE TIME.
I IGNORED IT.
WELL, BUT THINGS HAVE CHANGED
SINCE THEN.
ACTUALLY THE CENTER FOR
NEUROSCIENCE WHERE I WAS
RECOGNIZED THERE IS THE REST OF
THE BRAIN, VISUAL SYSTEM LIVES
IN THE BRAIN, IT REALLY
WASN'T -- DIDN'T SEEM TO BE
EARLY ON WHEN I FIRST STARTED
WORKING THERE.
ANYWAY, SO I'M TOTALLY REDUCING
THIS INCREDIBLY COMPLEX SYSTEM
TO JUST TWO COMPONENTS.
WHAT I DO WANT TO UNDERSTAND?
WORKING MEMORY, ATTENTION,
DECISION MEMORY, ALL PART OF THE
TASK.
AND OF COURSE SINCE WE'RE
DEALING SPECIFICALLY WITH
MOTION, THANK GOD WE HAD A
REALLY NICE TALK EARLIER TODAY
ABOUT MT, WE HEARD QUITE A BIT
FROM TOM.
THAT WAS REALLY A NICE SETUP FOR
ME ACTUALLY.
ANYWAY, THIS IS TWO AREAS I
STARTED THINKING ABOUT.
AND SO WHAT ABOUT PREFRONTAL
CORTEX?
MANY COMPONENTS ARE COGNITIVE,
SEEM TO MAKE SENSE, WHAT IS
PREFRONTAL CORTEX, WHAT IS IT
GOING TO DO WITH THIS TASK?
MY EXPECTATION WAS NOTHING.
I THOUGHT MT TAKES CARE OF
MOTION.
PHT DOESN'T NEED TO DO ANYTHING.
IT WILL EVENTUALLY DO SOMETHING
CLEVER WITH IT.
THIS IS WHAT -- THAT WAS MY
STARTING POINT.
TAKEHOME MESSAGE HERE, THE
LATERAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX
CARRIES INFORMATION ABOUT VISUAL
MOTION BUT UTILIZATION TASK
REQUIRES INTERACTION WITH MOTION
PROCESSING NEURONS IN AREA MT
WHICH PROVIDES THIS INFORMATION
PRESUMABLY.
ALL RIGHT.
I'M NOW GOING TO SHOW WHAT YOU
MT DOES DURING THIS TASK, REALLY
QUICKLY.
SO, THIS IS OUR TASK, ALL THE
COMPONENTS, S1, S2, DELAY,
POST-S2.
THIS WAS MT NEURON, GREAT
LOOKING MINE MANY OTHER MT
NEURONS.
YOU CAN SEE THIS PARTICULAR
NEURON LIKES LEFT WARD MOTION IN
THIS PARTICULAR CASE, DOESN'T
LIKE RIGHTWARD MOTION.
SO IT'S QUITE DIRECTION
SELECTIVE.
ANOTHER COOL THING ABOUT THIS,
CAN YOU SEE THIS?
THIS IS ANTICIPATORY BECAUSE THE
DELAY IS VERY, VERY HIGHLY
PREDICTABLE, AND SO THIS IS MT,
SUPPOSED TO BE DUMB, NOT KNOWING
ANYTHING, BUT IT HAS SIGNALS
THAT TELL US ABOUT PREPARATION
FOR THE NEXT PART OF THE TRIAL.
YOU CAN SEE ALSO IT GOES UP
AGAIN EVEN BEFORE THE REWARD.
THE REWARD HAS NOT HAPPENED YET.
I'M SUMMARIZE HERE, ANTICIPATORY
ACTIVITY PRIOR TO EVENTS.
STIMULUS-SPECIFIC TRANSIENT
SIGNALS, WHICH I'M NOT GOING TO
COVER IT.
AND RESPONSES DURING COMPARISON
S1, COMPARING CURRENT TO
PREVIOUS, AN INTERESTING ONE,
HARDLY ANYBODY STUDIES IT.
I'M SORRY THAT -- I'M HOPING
SOMEBODY WILL PICK UP ON IT AND
WILL WORK ON IT SOON BECAUSE I
WON'T BE DOING IT.
OKAY.
SO THIS IS MT.
NOW WE'RE GOING TO LOOK AT PFC.
WHAT YOU SEE HERE IS THAT DURING
THIS ONE, THERE IS ONE
DIRECTION, MORE PREFERRED THAN
THE OPPOSITE ONE.
ANTICIPATORY SIGNAL IS WHAT I
CALL IT, GOOD EVIDENCE, ANOTHER
PAPER WE KNOW IT'S ANTICIPATORY,
MODULATION.
AND YOU CAN SEE DURING S2 WE
HAVE THE SAME DIRECTIONAL
SELECTIVITY, SAME RESPONSE.
I'M SUMMARIZING SAME THING I
SAID ABOUT THE OTHER ONE.
NOW WE HAVE MT HAS DIRECTION
SELECT RESPONSE.
IT SHOWS SEVERAL FEATURES THAT
REFLECT THE TASK DEMANDS, RIGHT?
AND IT SHOWS -- I'M SAYING THE
SAME THING ABOUT PREFRONTAL
CORTEX.
AND RESPONSE IS COMPARISON S2,
AT THE TIME OF THE DECISION.
OKAY.
SO NOW I'M GOING TO SHOW YOU A
CLOSE-UP, WHAT PREFRONTAL CORTEX
DOES WHEN VISUAL.
YOU SAW THIS FROM TOM WAS
SHOWING IT EARLIER TODAY.
AN EXAMPLE MT NEURON, THIS
PARTICULAR NEURON LIKES MOTION
DOWN TO THE LEFT AND DOESN'T
LIKE -- NON-PREFERRED DIRECTION
IS UP TO THE RIGHT.
THAT SHOWS THE TUNING FUNCTION,
PRETTY STANDARD FOR MT.
FIRING RATES ARE VERY HIGH.
YOU CAN SEE IT HERE BUT WON'T
SEE IT THERE.
NOW I'M GOING TO SHOW, I'M GOING
TO RECORD FROM PREFRONTAL DURING
THE SAME TASK.
THIS IS COOL, RIGHT?
THIS BEAUTIFUL RESPONSE IS A
NICE EXAMPLE, NOT THE ONLY ONE,
NOT THE ONE I FOUND THAT LOOKS
BEST.
IT'S PRETTY TYPICAL.
40 SPIKES PER SECOND BUT A
BEAUTIFULLY TUNED FUNCTION FOR
DIRECTION.
THIS IS THE POPULATION, IT'S NOT
JUST ONE NEURON.
YOU HAVE DIRECTION SELECTIVITY
OF THE KIND THAT YOU WOULD
EXPECT FROM SENSORY CORTEX, LOOK
AT THIS FUNCTION AND YOU WILL
SEE THAT PREFRONTAL NEURONS ARE
LESS SELECTIVE BUT NOT THAT
MUCH, RIGHT?
JUST TO GIVE YOU ANOTHER
COMPARISON, TIMING IS IMPORTANT,
YOU CAN SEE MT LATENCY AT 40
MILLISECONDS, VERY QUICK.
THIS SHOWS YOU, AGAIN,
POPULATION PREFERRED DIRECTION
ANTI-PREFERRED DIRECTION.
SOMETHING NEEDS TO BE DIFFERENT
BUT IT'S QUITE RESPECTABLE
SELECTIVITY.
AT LEAST IN THE WAY WE DID THE
WORK, WE FOUND SMALLER
PROPORTION, MT OVER 90% OF
NEURONS DURING THIS TASK, IN
PREFRONTAL CORTEX LESS COMMON,
MAYBE 30%.
AGAIN, DEPENDS ON HOW YOU
ACTUALLY DO THE EXPERIMENT.
WE ACTUALLY DID SPEND LESS --
SOME NUMBER OF YEARS, WE WERE
USING MULTI-ELECTRODE SYSTEMS,
WE COULD COLLECT MORE THAN JUST
ONE NEURON AT THE TIME.
STILL, IT'S NOT WHAT WE'LL BE
ABLE TO DO.
THE FIELD IS GOING TO BE ABLE TO
DO YOU NOW, HOPEFULLY.
NOW WE HAVE THIS PRESENTATION OF
MOTION DIRECTION, VERY SIMILAR
IN BOTH AREAS.
IS IT SURPRISING?
NOT SO MUCH.
IN SOME WAYS YOU HAVE THIS
RECIPROCAL CONNECTIVITY BETWEEN
THE TWO.
I'M SIMPLIFYING IT BECAUSE THIS
REGION GIVES INPUT FROM LOTS OF
OTHER SENSORY AREAS.
I WOULDN'T BE SURPRISED IF YOU
WERE RUNNING ORIENTATION
DISCRIMINATION TASK AND THESE
WOULD LOOK VERY MUCH LIKE
BEFORE.
OKAY.
I DON'T THINK IT'S ANYTHING
UNIQUE ABOUT THIS.
RIGHT NOW I'M FOCUSING ON MT IN
THIS PARTICULAR CASE, THAT PART
OF CONNECTIVITY.
OKAY.
SO THE NEXT QUESTION YOU WOULD
HAVE ASKED IF I DIDN'T TELL YOU
ABOUT THIS, WELL, IS IT TASK
RELATED?
IS IT RELEVANT?
WHY WOULD PREFRONTAL CORTEX CARE
THAT MUCH, RIGHT?
IT DOESN'T,IF IT'S NOT
IMPORTANT.
IF YOU RUN THIS TASK, YOU DO
EXACTLY THE SAME THING, EXCEPT
THE MONKEY FIXATES, NOW
DIFFERENT CUE, AND NOW HE
DOESN'T HAVE TO DO ANYTHING.
ALL HE HAS TO DO IS SIT THERE
AND GET A REWARD AT THE END OF
THE TRIAL.
SO, CHANGE THE RULES, NO IDEA
WHAT THE MONKEY IS THINKING, NOT
WELL CONTROLLED ATTENTIONAL
COMPONENTS OF THE TASK AT ALL,
NO IDEA WHAT THE MONKEY IS
DOING.
BUT CHANGE THE RULE, RIGHT?
LET'S SEE WHAT HAPPENS TO
DIRECTION SELECTIVITY IN THIS
PREFRONTAL NEURONS, THAT WAS
SHOCKING TO ME.
THE PAPER CAME OUT IN 2009.
IT'S BEEN AROUND FOR A WHILE.
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF NEURON
DIRECTION SELECTIVE, AND
PREFRONTAL CORTEX, THE DIRECTION
TASK, THE SAME NEURON DURING THE
PASSIVE FIXATION TASK.
WHAT YOU FIND IS THAT THIS
SUPPRESSIVE RESPONSE TO THE
ANTI-PREFERRED DIRECTION,
TYPICALLY YOU SEE DIRECTION
SELECTIVITY, IS GONE.
IT'S COMPLETELY -- INHIBITION IS
GONE.
NOW WE HAVE -- WE DON'T HAVE
DIRECTION SELECTIVITY ANYMORE IN
THIS PARTICULAR NEURON.
IF ANYBODY IS INTERESTED, IT'S
IN THIS NEURON PAPER, IT'S
EXCRUCIATING DETAIL, WE ANALYZED
TO FIGURE OUT WHAT MAKES THEM
LESS DIRECTION SELECTIVE.
WE'RE DEALING WITH LOSS OF
SELECTIVITY.
VERY LOW LEVEL, IF YOU LOSE
DIRECTION SELECTIVELY BUT IT'S
IN PREFRONTAL CORTEX.
THAT'S A BIG FINDING, I BELIEVE,
IT'S NOT SURPRISING BECAUSE
THAT'S WHAT YOU WOULD EXPECT TO
HAPPEN.
THIS IS JUST A SUMMARY OF THE
DATA TO SHOW YOU THAT
SELECTIVITY, THIS IS JUST A WAY
OF EXPRESSING SELECTIVITY, JUST
SHOWS PASSIVE FIXATION,
SELECTIVITY IS REALLY -- WEAKENS
DRAMATICALLY.
CLEARLY SIGNALS ARE TASK
RELATED.
OKAY.
THAT'S A MOTION DIRECTION, ONLY
WHEN IT'S NEEDED APPARENTLY.
BY THE WAY, I'VE DONE THE SAME
WORK WITH SPEED DISCRIMINATION.
SPEED IS PRESENTED AS ROBUSTLY
AS DIRECTION, AND AS SIMILARLY
AS IN MT, SO THERE'S QUITE A
GENERAL PHENOMENA, I THINK.
NOW I WANT TO SPEND A LITTLE BIT
OF TIME TALKING ABOUT
REPRESENTATION OF MOTION IN
PREFRONTAL CORTEX ACROSS THE
VISUAL FIELD WHERE LESLIE CAME
IN BECAUSE I NEEDED TO CALL HER
TO MAKE SURE I GOT IT RIGHT.
SHE WAS -- YEAH, SHE TOLD ME IT
WAS RIGHT.
NOW I HAVE IT COLOR CODED.
I'M HIGHLIGHTING HERE, MT IS
LOOKING TO THE LEFT, TO THE
CONTRALATERAL FIELD, CODED IN
BLUE.
AND THIS MT, LEFT MT, IS LOOKING
TO THE OTHER FIELD, RIGHT?
WHAT YOU FIND IS THAT NOT
SURPRISINGLY YOU KNOW MT CAN
ONLY LARGELY SEE IN THE FIELDS.
WHEN YOU RECORD FROM PREFRONTAL
CORTEX, I'LL SHOW YOU DATA, BOTH
RED AND BLUE BECAUSE YOU HAVE
RESPONSES TO BOTH IPSILATERAL
AND CONTRALATERAL.
THOSE WHO RECORDED WOULD SAY,
YEAH, WE KNOW THAT.
WELL, IT'S NOT SURPRISING THAT
YOU HAVE BOTH, PROBABLY.
FIRST OF ALL, THIS PREFRONTAL
CORTEX GETS MT IPSILATERAL, THIS
ONE TO THE OTHER SIDE.
THEN THERE'S CONNECTIVITY
BETWEEN THE HEMISPHERE.
PRESUMABLY SIGNALS ARE BEING
EXCHANGED, THAT'S HOW THE LEFT
PREFRONTAL CORTEX IS ACTUALLY
ABLE TO SEE BOTH.
I'LL SHOW YOU IN A MINUTE HOW
INCREDIBLY RELIABLY REPRESENTED
BOTH HEMIFIELDS ARE, AND HOW
BALANCED IT IS.
HERE IS AN IMPORTANT PART.
EVERYTHING IS BILATERAL, RIGHT?
BUT WHAT'S NOT BILATERAL IS
THIS.
THE CONNECTIVITY GOING BACK INTO
MT IS ACTUALLY
INTRAHEMISPHERIC -- FIVE
MINUTES?
IT'S NOT GOING TO HAPPEN.
I THOUGHT IT WAS GOING TO GO
FASTER.
I'LL GO FAST.
NO, I CAN'T.
I HAVE A ROLE MODEL.
LESLIE SPOKE VERY SLOWLY.
WHICH IS A GOOD THING.
I'M SPEAKING MUCH FASTER, IF I
GO FASTER IT'S NOT GOING TO
WORK.
THIS IS AN IMPORTANT POINT.
I'M JUST SAYING BILATERAL NATURE
THE OF THE BOTTOM-UP SIGNALS,
THAT'S THE FIRST THING.
SIGNALS MAKING THEIR WAY TO EACH
PREFRONTAL CORTEX, BUT TOP-DOWN
CONFINED TO MT WITHIN THE SAME
HEMISPHERE.
WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONAL
CONSEQUENCES OF THIS
ORGANIZATION?
I'M GOING TO GO GIVE YOU A FEW,
FIRST OF ALL, WHAT HAPPENS TO
RECORDINGS FROM A NEURON IN
RESPONSE TO CONTRALATERAL
STIMULUS, AND THIS IS
IPSILATERAL, YOU CAN SEE IT'S
COMING FROM THE OPPOSITE SIDE.
BOTH ARE QUITE RELIABLY
SELECTIVE FOR MOTION, AT THE
SAME TIME THE PREFERRED
DIRECTIONS ARE REALLY ALIGNED
WHICH IS COOL.
THEY ARE COMING FROM OPPOSITE
SIDES BUT THEY ARE ALIGNED.
THAT'S SOMETHING, AGAIN, IN THAT
PAPER WE PUBLISHED IN 2016,
QUITE WELL DOCUMENTED.
OKAY.
SO WHAT I DIDN'T TELL YOU THAT
YOU COULD SEE THE RESPONSES ARE
WEAKER.
SOMEWHAT THAN THE CONTRALATERAL.
WHAT'S COOL, IT'S IN THE PAPER,
I DECIDED NOT TO SHOW IT SO I
CAN GO FASTER, BUT IN FACT THESE
SIGNALS ARE ENHANCED DURING THE
SECOND STIMULUS, DURING THE
SECOND -- WHEN THE ANIMAL
PERFORMED THE COMPARISON, THIS
WEAKER RESPONSE IS ENHANCED.
WHICH I THINK IS PRETTY
INTERESTING.
IN ANY CASE YOU HAVE A VERY
RELIABLE REPRESENTATION OF
MOTION ON BOTH SIDES.
THAT SHOWS IF YOU FORGET ABOUT
DIFFERENCE IN FIRING RATES,
BETWEEN THE TWO, FUNCTIONS ARE
SIMILAR.
WE HAVE CLEARLY THE PREFRONTAL
NEURONS HAVE ACCESS TO MOTION
SIGNALS IN BOTH HEMISPHERE.
SO, THAT'S THE FIRST PART I WAS
GOING TO MENTION TO YOU.
THE SECOND PART IS HOW I THINK
IMPORTANTLY THIS STUDY
COMPARISON -- WHAT HAPPENS IN
THE SECOND STIMULUS DURING THE
COMPARISON.
THIS IS WHAT I'M SHOWING YOU
HERE.
WHAT YOU FIND WHEN YOU RECORD IN
PREFRONTAL CORTEX DURING THE
SECOND STIMULUS, YOU FIND THAT
SOME NEURONS RESPOND -- SHOW
STRONGER RESPONSE TO THE TRIALS
WHEN TWO DIRECTIONS ARE
DIFFERENT, AND SOME ARE WEAKER,
RIGHT?
ANOTHER POPULATION OF NEURONS IS
THE OPPOSITE.
LIKES THE SAME TRIALS, MORE THAN
DIFFERENT.
TWO TYPES OF COMPARISONS IN
PREFRONTAL CORTEX.
ONCE YOU QUANTIFY IT MORE, WHAT
WE DID HERE, IT'S IN THIS PAPER,
SERIES OF PAPERS IN 2012 AND
2013, ALSO DIRECTION AND SPEED,
BOTH OF THEM, THE DIFFERENCE IS
LARGE, YOU HAVE STRONG SIGNALS
OF THE TWO KINDS.
TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEURONS
THAT ACTUALLY -- TWO POPULATIONS
THAT CARRY BOTH SIGNALS.
IT'S PRETTY.
THIS COMPARISON EFFECT DEPENDS
ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
FIRST AND SECOND STIMULUS.
WHEN THE DIVERSITY --
DIFFERENCE IS 90 DEGREES YOU
HAVE STRONG SIGNAL, IT REDUCES,
GETS SMALLER AS THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND
STIMULUS DECREASES.
THIS MODULATION SUGGESTS WE'RE
DEALING WITH A REAL SENSORY
COMPARISON.
AND WHAT I SHOULD MENTION, I
TOOK IT OUT TO SPEED IT UP.
THE VERY ANALOGOUS SIGNAL IN MT
AS WELL.
AND THAT'S PUBLISHED TOO.
IF ANYONE'S INTERESTED.
BUT THE COMPELLING PART IS THAT
WHEN THE DIFFERENCE IS REALLY
LARGE SIGNALS ARE STRONG.
WHEN DIFFERENCE IS SMALL THEY
GET WEAKER, THAT TELLS YOU WE'RE
DEALING WITH SENSORY COMPARISON.
OKAY.
TASK EFFECT, THIS SIGNAL, THIS
COMPARISON SIGNAL, JUST
COLLAPSES.
WE LOSE DIRECTION SELECTIVITY,
SIGNAL BASICALLY DISAPPEARS.
IN A WAY EXCITING TO HAVE
SENSORY SIGNALS THAT GO NOWHERE
UNLESS THERE'S A REASON FOR THE
ANIMAL TO BE ATTENDING TO IT.
SO, JUST TO SHOW YOU ALSO THAT
WHEN YOU LOOK FOR COMPARISON
SIGNALS IN CONTRA AND
IPSILATERAL, THEY ARE THE SAME,
RESPECTABLE SIGNALS.
NOW DEALING WITH SECOND PART OF
THE TRIAL, A COMPARISON, AS
OPPOSED TO JUST SENSORY
REPRESENTATION.
SO, I THINK I'M TRYING TO
CONVINCE YOU THAT PREFRONTAL
NEURONS SHOULD BE CAPABLE OF
CONTRIBUTING TO STIMULI.
I'M SUMMARIZING HERE WHAT I
ALREADY TOLD YOU, VISUAL MOTION,
PREFRONTAL CORTEX, COMPARISON
SIGNALS.
GIVEN THAT IT SEEMS IT SHOULD BE
FINE IF YOU REMOVE OR IF YOU
MAKE UNILATERAL LESION, YOU
SHOULDN'T HAVE -- OKAY, YOU
SHOULDN'T REALLY HAVE A HUGE
DEFICIT.
I'M SURE MOST OF PREFRONTAL
PEOPLE YOU TALK TO, ASK THEM,
WHAT DO YOU THINK, AM I GOING TO
HAVE A DEFICIT IF I MAKE A
UNILATERAL LESION, NO.
IT SEES THE WHOLE HEMIFIELD.
I'M GOING TO SHOW IT MAKES A
HUGE DIFFERENCE AND I'LL TELL
YOU WHY.
I'M JUST SHOWING YOU THAT WE
MADE A LESION, I'M GOING TO SHOW
YOU LATER WE DID MY LAST
EXPERIMENT, REVERSIBLE, OKAY, SO
HOW DO YOU MEASURE PERFORMANCE?
PARTICULARLY FROM PSYCHOPHYSICS,
YOU DO PSYCHOPHYSICAL
EXPERIMENTS.
IN THIS CASE THIS IS OUR TASK,
STIMULUS COMES ON.
DELAY.
SECOND STIMULUS COMES ON.
WHAT YOU CAN DO, YOU CAN MAKE
THRESHOLDS FOR DIRECTION RANGE,
CALL IT COHERENCE IF YOU WANT,
MANIPULATE COHERENCE,
THRESHOLDS, AND THEN YOU HAVE A
MUCH MORE SENSITIVE MEASURE THAN
JUST MEASURING PERFORMANCE FOR
THE STIMULI THAT DIFFER BY A
LARGE AMOUNT.
WHAT WE WANTED TO KNOW SINCE
WE'RE INTERESTED IN MEMORY,
WANTED TO KNOW WHAT HAPPENS AT
SHORT AND LONG DELAYS DURING
THIS TASK, WITH UNILATERAL
LESION.
I'M GOING TO SHOW THE
THRESHOLDS.
THEY GET WORSE AS DELAY IS
LONGER, NOT SURPRISING.
AND BASICALLY LEFT AND RIGHT
HEMIFIELDS ARE THE SAME.
THERE'S NO DIFFERENCE, IT'S NOT
SURPRISING WE JUST NEEDED TO GET
THIS INFORMATION.
NOW I'M GOING TO SHOW YOU WHAT
HAPPENS WITH PREFRONTAL AND MT
LESION, VERY SHORT DELAY.
YOU CAN SEE UNILATERAL
PREFRONTAL LESION WE HAVE A
SENSITIVE TASK, I BELIEVE.
SHOWED NO EFFECT.
THIS IS THE THRESHOLD.
MT HAS EFFECT, REASONABLE,
BECAUSE MT, WE'VE SHOWN IT
BEFORE IN OTHER WORK, OTHER
PEOPLE ARE ABLE TO MAKE SENSE
YOU'LL HAVE MOTION DEFICITS, FOR
A VERY SHORT DELAY.
BUT LESIONS IN REMOVING FRONTAL
NEURONS DIDN'T SEEM TO BE
ESSENTIAL, THAT'S A ROBUST
FINDING THAT MAKES SENSE.
IT DOESN'T MEAN THESE NEURONS
ARE NOT IMPORTANT FOR THIS TASK,
IT JUST MEANS THE TASK WASN'T
SENSITIVE ENOUGH BECAUSE
DEFICITS WILL BE SUBTLE.
OKAY.
SO NOW I'M GOING TO SHOW WHAT
HAPPENED ACTUALLY FROM THE
CORTEX WHEN YOU MEASURE THE
FUNCTION OF DELAY.
THE EFFECT IS HUGE, AND
INCREASES AS THE DELAY GETS
LONGER.
SO THAT'S SURPRISING, RIGHT?
IT'S PREFRONTAL CORTEX,
INFORMATION IS BEING PRESERVED,
BUT THIS IS MT LESION, EXACTLY
THE SAME THING.
THE EFFECTS ARE VERY SIMILAR.
YOU COULD SEE 15 YEARS IN
BETWEEN THE TWO STUDIES.
THE BIG STORY HERE IT'S A
CONTRALATERAL DEFICIT, WITH MT
NOT SURPRISING, REPRESENTS
CONTRALATERAL VISION FIELD.
I BELIEVE THE CONTRALATERAL
NATURE HIGHLIGHTS IMPORTANCE OF
THE INTRAHEMISPHERIC INTERACTION
BETWEEN PREFRONTAL CORTEX AND
MOTION PROCESSING AREA MT, YOU
CAN SEE THE SIGNALS ARE STAYING
ON THE SAME SIDE.
MY GUESS IS THAT WHAT YOU REALLY
NEED IS A CONTINUOUS INTERACTION
BETWEEN PREFRONTAL AND MT DURING
THIS TASK.
WE DO HAVE SOME EARLY
PHYSIOLOGY, ABLE TO RECORD
SIMULTANEOUSLY, BUT I DON'T DO
IT ANYMORE WHICH IS SAD.
THIS IS JUST TO SHOW YOU IT
WORKED THE SAME WAY, THIS IS A
LONG DELAY, DEFICIT IN
THRESHOLDS, NOTHING ON
IPSILATERAL.
I'M ALMOST DONE.
TO SUMMARIZE PREFRONTAL NEURONS
REPRESENT DIRECTION AND SPEED
WHICH I DIDN'T SHOW YOU.
LESLIE SAID DON'T SHOW IT DID
YOU DON'T SAY IT.
I'M SENDING YOU TO READ THE
PAPERS.
SIGNALS RECORDED IN PREFRONTAL
CORTEX DEPEND ON DEMANDS OF
BEHAVIORAL TASK.
WHAT I THINK IS COOL IS THAT
THESE NEURONS INCORPORATE
SENSORY SIGNALS COMING FROM
OPPOSITE HEMIFIELDS, THEY ARE
ALIGNED WHICH I DON'T KNOW HOW
IT HAPPENS.
WE NEED TO KNOW SOMETHING MORE
ABOUT DEVELOPMENT, RESULTING IN
BALANCED REPRESENTATION.
HERE IS THE MESSAGE.
PREFRONTAL NEURONS CONTAIN
REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS ABOUT
VISUAL MOTION BUT UTILIZATION
AND BEHAVIORAL TASK REQUIRES
INTRAHEMISPHERIC INTERACTION
WITH MOTION PROCESSING NEURONS
IN AREA MT.
I HOPE SOMEBODY WILL FIND OUT
WHEN WE START RECORDING LARGE
ENOUGH NUMBERS OF NEURONS AND
WHERE WE COULD ACTUALLY ANALYZE
DATA ON A TRIAL-BY-TRIAL BASIS
TO GET A SENSE OF HOW THIS
INTERACTION -- HOW DYNAMIC THIS
INTERACTION IS.
AND THAT'S THAT.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
[APPLAUSE]
>> WE'RE A LITTLE BIT BEHIND
SCHEDULE.
IF YOU HAVE QUESTIONS FOR TANIA
SEE HER DURING THE RECEPTION OR
BREAK.
THANK YOU, TANIA.
NEXT IS LUIZ PESSOAA, POSTDOC
WITH LESLIE IN THE EARLY
2000s, CURRENTLY DIRECTOR OF
MARYLAND NEUROIMAGING CENTER,
PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND.
WHEN HE'S NOT DOING GREAT
NEUROSCIENCE, HE'S WRITING A
BOOK OR TWEETING.
I'M GLAD HE WAS ABLE TO JOIN US
TODAY.
THANKS FOR BEING HERE.
TAKE IT AWAY.
>> I SHOULD THANK THE ORGANIZING
COMMITTEE BECAUSE I MEAN IT,
THIS IS AN ENORMOUS HONOR FOR ME
TO BE HERE TODAY.
SO, THE TITLE OF MY TALK IS
COGNITIVE EMOTIONAL BRAIN FROM
INTERACTIONS TO INTEGRATION.
I ALSO REALLY WANT TO TELL YOU A
DIFFERENT STORY, A STORY OF A
PERSON WHO HAD A BACKGROUND IN
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND MATH AND
Ph.D. IN COMPUTATIONAL
NEUROSCIENCE, NOW I CALL MYSELF
AN EMOTION RESEARCHER.
HOW DID THAT HAPPEN?
IN FACT, NOT ONLY THAT, WHY DO I
LIVE IN THE U.S.?
EVEN AN AMERICAN CITIZEN.
IT REALLY IS ALL DUE TO MY BEING
ADOPTED BY LESLIE INTO THIS
REALLY EXTENDED AND WONDERFUL
LBC COMMUNITY, LBC FAMILY, IN
FACT.
HOW DID THAT HAPPEN?
I WAS IN BRAZIL AT THE TIME.
AND ONE DAY ONE OF MY EARLY
MENTORS, RICARDO, WE HAD A
CONVERSATION IN THE BIOPHYSICS
DEPARTMENT, I TOLD HIM THAT I
WAS THINKING THAT I WAS GOING TO
TAKE A LEAVE FROM MY FACULTY
POSITION IN BRAZIL BECAUSE I
WASN'T TOO HAPPY THERE.
SO, WITHOUT EVEN PLANNING
ANYTHING OR ASKING EXPLICITLY,
RICARDO WROTE AN E-MAIL TO LESS
A.
LESLIE, THERE'S A PERSON HERE I
KNOW WHO WANTS TO SPEND TIME IN
THE U.S.
I THINK HE'S HAVING TROUBLE
ADAPTING BACK TO LIFE IN BRAZIL
AFTER HIS Ph.D. AT BOSTON
UNIVERSITY.
IN OTHER WORDS, I WAS DEPRESSED
BACK THERE.
LESLIE, I THINK IT WAS A
ONE-LINER.
I MIGHT HAVE SOME FUNDS, WHEN IS
HE COMING?
WHEN RICARDO TELLS ME THAT THE
NEXT DAY, HE JUST FORWARDED THE
E-MAIL TO ME, I WAS LIKE, WHAT?
HOW DID THAT HAPPEN?
AND SO BOTTOM LINE, I JOINED THE
LBC IN THE FALL OF 1999, AND
LITERALLY WON THE LOTTERY.
I DON'T KNOW HOW MANY OF YOU
HAVE WON THE LOTTERY, BUT I DID
THAT DAY.
I JOINED THE LBC LATE SUMMER OF
1999, ARRIVED, I DON'T KNOW THE
PAST HISTORY OF THE SPACE,
BUILDING 10, BUILDING 49,
SEPARATION BETWEEN MONKEY WORK
AND HUMAN WORK, I'M COMPLETELY
CLUELESS OBVIOUSLY.
I'M TALKING TO LESLIE.
LESLIE SAYS I DON'T REALLY HAVE
SPACE IN MY LAB SO DO YOU MIND
STAYING IN BOB'S SPACE?
THAT MEANT BUILDING 49.
I DIDN'T GET TO ASK BOB IF THAT
WOULD BE OKAY, WHAT NOT.
OKAY, THAT SOUNDS FINE.
SABINE PROBABLY LEFT, BUT WHAT
HAPPENED IS I GOT TO, AGAIN
LUCKED OUT, I GOT TO SHARE AN
OFFICE WITH SABINE, FOR THE
YEARS BEFORE SHE LEFT TO
PRINCETON.
ALSO WITH A TON OF PEOPLE, JOHN,
BETH, PASCAL, SO MANY PEOPLE I'M
BLANKING NOW, IT WAS AMAZING.
HOW DID I GET TO BE AN EMOTION
RESEARCHER?
COMPUTATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE.
AROUND 2000 OR SO MARGO MCKENNA
JOINED LESLIE'S LAB AS AN HHMI
FELLOW.
DO THEY STILL EXIST?
SHE CAME, GOT A FELLOWSHIP FOR A
YEAR AND IT'S AMAZING, THE
PERSON CHOOSES WHAT LAB THEY ARE
GOING TO DO RESEARCH IN, AND FOR
A PERIOD OF A YEAR.
MARGO JOINS THE LAB.
OBVIOUSLY LESLIE IS ENORMOUSLY
BUSY.
I'M TALKING TO LESLIE, DO YOU
HAVE ANY SUGGESTIONS, WHAT SHE
COULD WORK ON, COULD YOU HELP
MENTOR HER?
SHE WAS OVERWHELMED, PERHAPS ONE
OF THE REVIEW CYCLES, WHAT NOT.
I SAID, OKAY, HOW ABOUT WE WORK
ON EMOTION ATTENTION?
WHY DID WE DO THAT?
THE REASON IS AT THE TIME IT WAS
VERY PREVALENT IN THE
LITERATURE, THERE WAS THIS IDEA
EVERYWHERE, EVERYONE WAS EXCITED
ABOUT IT.
PERHAPS, AT LEAST IN NO SMALL
PART BECAUSE A BOOK TALKED ABOUT
THE SUBCORTICAL PATHWAY, SLOW
CORTICAL PROSING, THE AUTOMATIC
PATHWAY, SUBCORTICAL PATHWAY WAS
VERY FAST AND AUTOMATIC,
INDEPENDENT OF ATTENTION, AND
PEOPLE WERE MAKING A CAREER
PUBLISHING IN "NATURE" AND
"SCIENCE" ALL THE TIME, CLAIMING
THAT NOT ONLY ATTENTION, IT WAS
EVEN UNDER YOUR CONSCIOUSNESS
LEFT, PROCESSING STIMULI AT
UNCONSCIOUS LEVEL, HAVING
EFFECTS IN YOUR AMYGDALA EVEN
THOUGH YOU WERE NOT CONSCIOUS OF
THE STIMULI.
THIS WAS PART OF A LARGE
FRAMEWORK THAT WAS SHAPING
RESEARCH, A LOT OF CLINICAL
RESEARCH HAD TO DO WITH THE IDEA
PARALLEL PROCESSING STREAMS OR
DUAL PROCESSING MODELS IN WHICH
COGNITION IS ONE OF THE STREAMS,
AND FLOWS IN A WAY THAT IS
LARGELY INDEPENDENT FROM ANOTHER
STREAM, EMOTION STREAM.
BUT AT THE SAME TIME, THIS IDEA
OF AUTOMATIC PROCESSING, I
SHOULD STEP BACK ACTUALLY.
IN SUPPORTING THIS NOTION OF THE
SEPARATION OF THESE STREAMS, A
LOT OF PEOPLE WERE SAYING THIS
PATHWAY WAS AUTOMATIC BECAUSE
THERE WAS ACTUALLY A SPECIALIZED
SUBCORTICAL PATHWAY THAT WOULD
PROVIDE A SUBSTRATE FOR THIS,
AUDITORY DOMAIN, WE WERE VISION
SCIENTISTS, LIGHT WOULD COME IN
THE RETINA, SUPERIOR COLLICULUS,
PULVINAW, AMYGDALA.
LESLIE WAS LIKE, THAT'S NOT
RIGHT.
I'VE NEVER SEEN THAT IN ANY OF
MY STUDIES.
THAT DOESN'T EXIST!
BECAUSE SHE KNEW SHE WAS SAYING
THAT THE SUPERIOR COLLICULUS
PROJECTS THE PULVINAR, THEY
DON'T TALK TO EACH OTHER.
THAT WAS NOT THE ONLY THING.
AGAIN, LESLIE WAS COMBINING
THESE SOURCES OF EVIDENCE.
WE KNEW, I KNEW, I HAD BEEN IN
BOSTON MID-'90s, KEVIN
EREAGAN, THE LIMITS OF VISUAL
PROCESSING IN ITEMS OF CAPACITY
LIMITS, VISION REQUIRED VISION.
WE OFTEN MISS LARGE PARTS OF THE
SCENE, PRESUMABLY BECAUSE OF OUR
LIMITED PROCESSING CAPACITY.
SO, THIS NATURALLY LED OBVIOUSLY
IN LESLIE'S HANDS, FORMULATE
HYPOTHESIS, ADVANTAGE OF
EMOTION-LADEN STIMULI THAT WOULD
DEPEND ON ATTENTION.
TO TEST THAT, WE DID AN INITIAL
STUDY IN WHICH WE DID A SIMPLE
STUDY, BLOCK DESIGN, LATER ALL
SORTS OF VARIANTS, BUT
ESSENTIALLY IN THE BEGINNING A
SIMPLE TASK, A BLOCK OF TRIALS
IN WHICH THE PERSON HAD JUST TO
SEE THESE FACES, INDICATE
WHETHER THEY WERE MALE OR FEMALE
LOOKING FACES, PRESENTED VERY
BRIEFLY TO MINIMIZE EYE MOVEMENT
AND WHAT NOT.
ALTERNATING BLOCKS OF TRIALS WE
MANIPULATED THE FOCUS OF
ATTENTION, PARTICIPANTS HAD BEEN
TAUGHT TO MAINTAIN FOCUS OF
ATTENTION IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
FACE, IN THE PERSON'S NOSE, ONLY
SHIFT THEIR ATTENTION TO THE
PERIPHERY TO DETERMINE WHETHER
THESE PERIPHERAL BARS WERE THE
SAME ORIENTATION OR NOT.
SO ONE WAS OBVIOUSLY THE FACES
WERE TASK RELEVANT AND CENTRAL,
THE OTHER ONE FACES WERE CENTRAL
BUT TASK IRRELEVANT.
WE SAW THAT ACTUALLY ATTENTION
WAS REQUIRED.
WE SAW FOR A FEARFUL FACE THERE
WAS A VIGOROUS RESPONSE CLEARLY
STRONGER THAN FOR A NEUTRAL
FACE.
INTERMEDIATE FOR HAPPY FACES,
ALL WHEN ATTENDED.
WHEN FACES WERE NOT ATTENDED
THESE DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSES
COMPLETELY WERE ELIMINATED.
SUGGESTING THAT EFFECT OF
VALENCE WAS DEPENDENT ON
ATTENTION.
WELL, THIS SHOWED TO US THAT
WHATEVER ADVANTAGES SEVERAL
STUDIES HAD SHOWN FOR EFFECTIVE
PROCESSING IS PROCESSING
PRIORITIZED, NOT INDEPENDENT OF
HOST OF FACTORS SUCH AS
ATTENTION, IN A SERIES OF
STUDIES WE DID, AWARENESS, TASK
CONTEXT, SO ON AND SO FORTH,
SHOWING THAT EFFECTIVE
PROCESSING IS NOT AUTOMATIC IN
THE STRONG SENSE BEING ADVOCATED
IN LITERATURE, LA DUE AND
OTHERS, SO THIS WAS WORK WE DID
WITH SHRUTI AND ALOMETE.
THIS WAS MY TIME HERE AT NIH.
I WAS ON THE OLDER SIDE BECAUSE
I HAD BEEN FACULTY IN BRAZIL
AFTER MY Ph.D., SO I WAS
TRYING TO GET A FACULTY JOB, NOT
BE TOO OLD BY THE TIME I GOT A
FACULTY JOB, SO I LEFT HERE IN
2003.
AND SO IT WAS A VERY PRODUCTIVE
PERIOD, RELATIVELY SHORT.
WHEN I LEFT HERE WHAT I DID AT
FIRST, A FEW THINGS, DIFFERENT
THINGS.
ONE WILL RECOGNIZE, ALL OF YOU,
WILL RECOGNIZE A COMPETITIVE
FRAMEWORK HERE, SOMETHING LIKE
BIAS COMPETITION, MANY OTHER
KINDS OF COMPETITION FRAMEWORKS
THAT I TOOK THIS IDEA AND ADDED
SOME BRILLIANT TWISTS TO IT
WHICH WAS, OKAY, THIS IS WELL
ESTABLISHED, WHY DON'T WE SAY
THAT THERE'S A LITTLE INFLUENCE
FROM EFFECTIVE PROCESSING, GIANT
LEAP HERE, TO ADD A LITTLE BIT
OF -- THE OTHER GIANT LEAP WAS
TO SAY THAT MAYBE THERE WAS A
MOTIVATIONAL COMPONENT.
OBVIOUSLY, CLEARLY ALONG THE
LINES I HAD INITIATED HERE,
ADDING THE CONTRIBUTIONS FROM
THESE EFFECTIVE TYPES OF
INFORMATION MOTIVATIONALLY
RELEVANT INFORMATION ON THE MORE
REPETITIVE END, EXCUSE ME, MORE
ON THE AVERSIVE END, AFFECTIVE
SIGNIFICANCE, OR REWARD, JUST TO
HAVE A LABEL TO PRESENT THIS.
SO, LET ME GIVE ONE EXAMPLE OF
ONE EXPERIMENT WE DID THAT I DID
THEN SINCE LEAVING THAT GETS TO
THIS IDEA OF HOW EFFECTIVE
VISION INTERACTS WITH ATTENTION.
ONE OF THE EXPERIMENTS IN THIS
EXPERIMENT WHAT WE USED WAS THIS
WELL-ESTABLISHED PARADIGM, THE
BLINK, IF YOU HAVEN'T SEEN IT
BEFORE, IT'S SIMPLE.
IT'S ESSENTIALLY A CLIP AROUND
TWO SECONDS, HER 100
MILLISECONDS ONE FRAME IS SHOWN
WITH TWO CRITICAL TARGETS ALONG
THE STREAM OF TWO SECONDS, FIRST
TARGET CALLED T1, FIRST T1
TARGET, SECOND CRITICAL TARGET,
THE FIRST IS VERY EASY TO
DETECT, PEOPLE DETECT IT AT
ALMOST 100% OF THE TIME.
THE CRITICAL TARGET IS T2, VERY
CLOSE TO T1 IN TEMPORAL
PROXIMITY.
PEOPLE MISS, AS IF THEY ARE
PHYSICALLY BLINKING BUT IT'S NOT
A PHYSICAL BLINK, IT'S AN
ATTENTIONAL BLINK THAT
ESSENTIALLY THEY ARE UNAWARE OF
THE STIMULUS.
THE LOGIC IS, OKAY, T2 ARE
MISSED, BUT ALL THESE PEOPLE
SAYING AFFECTIVE PROCESSING IS
PRIORITIZED.
WHY DON'T WE MAKE A T2 THAT'S
SIGNIFICANT.
WE CHOOSE TWO CATEGORIES OF
STIMULI, HOUSES AND SKYSCRAPERS,
BUILDINGS, MAKE ONE OF THE
CATEGORIES EFFECTIVELY
SIGNIFICANT.
IT'S BETTER HERE.
WE HAVE A CS+ PAIRED WITH A MILD
SHOCK, TITRATED SO THE
INDIVIDUAL CAN TOLERATE, SO WE
HAVE A CS+ AND CS -CATEGORY, ONE
IS HOUSES, A PERSON HAS TO
INDICATE, YES, I SAW T2, A
HOUSE.
YES, I SAW T2, T2 IS A BUILDING.
SO OBVIOUSLY COUNTER-BALANCE.
WE FOUND BEHAVIORALLY WE FOUND
FOR CS , TYPICAL STIMULUS, YOU
HAVE AN ATTENTIONAL BLINK,
PEOPLE DETECT AROUND 62% OF THE
TIME, A CHALLENGING TASK.
THE QUESTION IS, DOES THE
EFFECTIVE SIGNIFICANCE RECOVER,
ALLOW YOU TO ACTUALLY MINIMIZE
OR PERHAPS ELIMINATE IF IT'S
AUTOMATIC, RIGHT?
BUT IN OUR HANDS WE ANTICIPATED
IT WOULD IMPROVE PERFORMANCE.
WE DO GET AN IMPROVEMENT OR 10,
12% IN THE -- OH WELL.
SO, WE DO GET AN INCREASE OF
AROUND 12% WITH CS+ SHOWING
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE EFFECT OF
MANIPULATION.
WE DID A LOT OF ANALYSIS, TRIED
TO UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL
MECHANISMS, WE'RE NOT
MANIPULATING THIS, WE'RE NOT
SILENCING AREAS OR ACTIVATING
AREAS, NOT LESIONING AREAS.
WE TRY TO ADDRESS THIS BY
LOOKING AT TRIAL-BY-TRIAL
FLUCTUATION IN AMYGDALA, GIVEN
ITS IMPORTANCE FOR CS+
CONDITIONING, WE FOUND THAT
FLUCTUATIONS ON A TRIAL-BY-TRIAL
BASE FRIDAYS AMYGDALA WERE
PREDICTIVE OF ABILITY TO DETECT
T2 STIMULUS, HIGHER THE fMRI
SIGNAL, THE HIGHER LIKELIHOOD OF
DETECTION.
SO WHAT WE DID, CAPITALIZING
THAT THE STIMULI WERE DEFINED TO
ENGAGE THE CORTEX, RESPONSIVE TO
THESE KINDS OF SCENES, WE COULD
ALSO PROBE RESPONSES IN VISUAL
CORTEX.
RESPONSES COMPARED TO STIMULI
MEDIATED THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN AMYGDALA AND BEHAVIOR ON
A TRIAL-BY-TRIAL BASIS IF WE
CONSIDER AMPLITUDE.
ESSENTIALLY CAN CONVINCE
YOURSELF THIS RELATIONSHIP OF
POTENTIAL CIRCUIT INVOLVING AMIG
DA LAY, STRENGTHING SIGNALS WITH
POTENTIAL TO ENHANCE YOUR
ABILITY TO DETECT T2.
A FEW YEARS LATER, PUTTING THIS
LITERATURE TOGETHER, WE DECIDED
TO PUT A PIECE GOING AGAINST
THIS IDEA OF THE SUBCORTICAL LOW
ROAD THAT WAS PREVALENT IN THE
LITERATURE INCLUDING CLINICAL
LITERATURE, EVEN GRANTING A LOW
ROAD, WE STILL CANNOT RULE OUT,
WHICH IS FINE, THAT IT EXISTS,
NOT COMPLETELY COMMITTED TO
ABSOLUTE NON-EXISTENCE, THE FACT
IS THAT TO UNDERSTAND EFFECTIVE
PROCESSING WE HAVE TO UNDERSTAND
MANY ROADS, MANY WAYS BY WHICH
EFFECTIVE INFORMATION CAN AFFECT
BEHAVIOR, BRAIN PROCESSING AND
BEHAVIOR.
ESSENTIALLY WHAT WE'RE DOING IN
A NUTSHELL IS SUGGESTING THAT
INSTEAD OF CONSIDERING THIS KIND
OF HIERARCHICAL MODEL GUIDING
THE FIELD FROM THE RETINA ALL
THE WAY TO THE AMYGDALA, BEING A
POTENTIAL CORTICAL PATHWAY,
ANOTHER ONE, SUBCORTICAL PATHWAY
THAT WOULD BYPASS IT UNDER
CERTAIN CONDITIONS, EXPLAINING
THE ADVANTAGE OF EFFECTIVE
STIMULI, WHAT WE'RE PROPOSING IN
OUR MODEL WAS IN FACT A
DIFFERENT SCHEME, ONE IN WHICH
WEALTH OF CONNECTIVITY THAT IS
KNOWN TO EXIST, BYPASS CONNECTS
ALONG THE VENTRAL PROCESSING
VISUAL STREAM BUT IN ADDITION
SITUATING THE PULVINAR AT LEAST,
NOT AS A LET'S SAY RELAY OR DUMB
PLAYER IN THIS RELATIONSHIP BUT
A KEY NODE INTERACTING NOT ONLY
WITH AMYGDALA IN CRITICAL WAYS
BUT ONE OF THESE -- I THINK
CAROL SAID IT, PEOPLE WHO STUDY
THE PULVINAR GO INSANE BECAUSE
THE PULVINAR IS COMPLETELY
INCREDIBLE, LITERALLY IS
COMMUNICATING WITH THE ENTIRE
CORTEX.
ALSO LINKED TO SO CALLED
ASSOCIATIONAL OR BRAIN REGIONS
INCLUDING TERRITORIES ALONG
PARIETAL, FRONTAL, SO ON.
WE SUGGESTED A DIFFERENT ROLE
FOR THE PULVINAR, ONE IN WHICH
ITS OWN RELATIONSHIP IN THAT
PARADIGM OF DETECTING T2
STIMULUS IN BLINK COULD BE
QUANTIFIED ON A TRIAL-BY-TRIAL
BASIS, THE HIGHER THE ACTION IN
THE PULVINAR, HIGHER PROBABILITY
OF DETECTING STIMULUS WAS
SOMETHING ABOUT A RELAY PATHWAY,
SOMETHING THAT HAD TO BE WITH
MORE INTEGRATIVE RELATIONSHIP.
OKAY.
SO, LET ME JUST BRIEFLY HERE
DISCUSS A LITTLE BIT OF -- SOME
OTHER WORK IN THE LAB WHICH WAS
WE HAD INVESTIGATED THIS SIDE,
THIS SIDE STARTED IN THE LAB,
LESLIE WAS ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT
STUDYING THIS.
IN A SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS,
LOOKED AT THE MOTIVATIONAL SIDE
OF THE EFFECT.
ESSENTIALLY, I HAD A
CONVERSATION A FEW WEEKS BEFORE
LEAVING FOR MY FIRST POSITION AT
BROWN UNIVERSITY, AND PRESENTING
SOMETHING LIKE THIS TO HIM
SAYING WE ARE FINDING THIS IN
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN, DO YOU THINK
THIS MIGHT BE IN THE REWARD
DOMAIN?
AND HE THOUGHT, YEAH, THAT MAKES
SENSE, GIVE IT A TRY.
WE DID THAT OVER A LARGE SERIES
OF EXPERIMENTS, I WANT TO SHOW
YOU ONE OF THEM.
AND HYPOTHESIS HERE THAT WE HAD,
MOTIVATION ESSENTIALLY PROVIDING
REWARD TO INDIVIDUALS, IN THIS
CASE NOT PRIMARY REWARDS BUT
CASH REWARDS, WOULD ENHANCE
EXECUTIVE FUNCTION.
INCREASING LIKELIHOOD OF REWARD
ON A TRIAL BY TRIAL BASIS.
SO TO TEST THAT, WE HYPOTHESIZED
THAT REWARD WOULD ENHANCE
COGNITIVE CONTROL, WHATEVER THAT
MEANS -- FIVE MINUTES LEFT?
I ALSO CAN'T DO IT.
[LAUGHTER]
ARE YOU SURE YOU RESTARTED THE
TIMER?
YOU RESTARTED IT?
OKAY.
REDUCE THE RESPONSE CONFLICT.
WE WANTED TO FIND A SPECIFIC WAY
IN WHICH REWARD WOULD BE SLOWING
DOWN PERFORMANCE BECAUSE PEOPLE
HAVE SHIFTED RESPONSE CRITERION
OR SPEEDING UP, SPECIFIC WAY IN
WHICH THIS WOULD HAVE AN EFFECT,
AND WE WERE WORK ON A
STROOP-LIKE TASK, SO WHAT WE
FOUND WAS THAT TYPE OF
INTERFERENCE THAT WE ALWAYS FIND
IN A STROOP-LIKE TASK WAS
LARGELY DECREASED IN A SITUATION
IN WHICH YOU COULD EARN THE
REWARDS.
THE IMPORTANT THING WAS WHAT ARE
THE KIND OF SUBSTRATES THAT
COULD BE MEDIATING THESE
EFFECTS, AND FOR THAT WE LOOKED
AT SOME TRIAL-BY-TRIAL
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN REGIONS
IMPORTANT FOR ATTENTION, AS WELL
AS REGIONS IN STRIATUM.
WE WERE INTERESTED IN GOING
BEYOND THIS PAIRWISE
RELATIONSHIP, WE DID A NETWORK
ANALYSIS, LOOKED AT BRAIN
REGIONS AS NODES OF THIS NETWORK
AND FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY AS
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THEM,
TRIAL-BY-TRIAL FUNCTION
CONNECTIVITY AND FOUND THERE WAS
A CERTAIN ORGANIZATION OF THIS
NETWORK WITH REGIONS MOSTLY
LINKED TO MORE COGNITIVE CONTROL
HERE AND REGIONS THAT WERE MORE
LINKED TO REWARD-RELATED
PROCESSING HERE.
EVEN IN THE NO-REWARD CONDITION.
THERE'S NOTHING RIGHT ABOUT THIS
COMPOSITION, JUST A CLUSTERING,
CLUSTERING DOESN'T HAVE ANYTHING
MAGIC THAT IS CORRECT OR THAT'S
THE WAY THE BRAIN WORKS.
BUT IT'S ESSENTIALLY AN
ORGANIZATION WE SEE WHEN THE
PERSON SEES THE CUE THEY ARE
GOING TO EARN ZERO IN THE
CONTROL TRIAL.
OUR QUESTION WAS NOT ABOUT THE
EXACT STRUCTURE OF THIS
ORGANIZATION BUT WHAT HAPPENS
WHEN A PERSON HAS THE ABILITY,
POTENTIAL TO WIN A REWARD?
WHAT WE SAW WAS A LARGE INCREASE
IN FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY
ACROSS THESE NODES OF THE TWO
CLUSTERS UNDER THE POSSIBILITY
OF REWARDS, SO WE FIND REALLY
THIS LARGE SCALE CHANGES IN
NETWORK ORGANIZATION THAT CAN BE
BE QUANTIFIED, DISCUSSED DURING
THE BREAK LATER, DURING OUR
DISCUSSION LATER, SYSTEM BECOMES
LESS MODULAR WITH INTEGRATION
BETWEEN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
NETWORKS.
NEXT THREE MINUTES, I WANT TO
TELL YOU MORE ABOUT THE
INCREDIBLE INFLUENCE LESLIE'S
LESSONS IN TEACHINGS HAD IN MY
CAREER N A -- CAREER.
IN A PAPER I WROTE A FEW YEARS
AGO, THERE'S THIS EMOTIONAL
BRAIN, VIEWED AS LOCALIZED
MODULES THAT TALK TO EACH OTHER,
CAN WE FIND OTHER PICTURE IN
WHICH THERE'S A LARGE SCALE OF
INTERACTION ACROSS THE ENTIRE
NEURAL AXIS, IN A SENSE
INCLUDING CORTEX, SUBCORTEX,
BRAINSTEM, ALSO PART OF THIS
LARGE CIRCUIT, CEREBELLUM.
AND ANOTHER PART IS REALLY
LESLIE'S LOVE OF ANATOMY, ALWAYS
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY, SOMETHING
I'VE ALWAYS -- I HAVE IN THE
PAST TEN YEARS STARTED TO STUDY
SERIOUSLY, WHAT I'VE TRIED TO DO
IS LOOK AT THE NEUROANATOMY OF
MAMMALS BUT ACROSS ALL
VERTEBRATES.
SO, COLLABORATION WITH
COLLEAGUES IN SPAIN, LORETTA
MEDINA, WE HAVE BEEN LOOKING AT
THE ORGANIZATION, LARGE SCALE
PLAN, NEURAL AC -- ARCHITECTURE
IN THE BRAIN TO UNDERSTAND THIS
LARGE PLAN, THIS LARGE GRAND
SCHEME IN WHICH VERTEBRATES SEEM
TO HAVE LARGE COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS THAT ALLOW INFORMATION
TO REALLY BUILD CIRCUITS THAT
SPAN THE NEUROAXIS.
WE'VE BEEN TRYING TO UNDERSTAND
IMPLICATIONS, IN MAMMALS, THE
CLASSICAL CORTICAL BASAL
GANGLION LOOPS ARE A CENTRAL
COMPONENT, FUNNELS INTO THE
STRIATUM, GOES BACK, ONE OF THE
THINGS WE HAVE BEEN LOOKING AT
ACROSS THE VERTEBRATES,
TERRESTRIAL, THIS EXTENDED
AMYGDALA WAS NOTED FOR MAMMALS,
THE BASOLATERAL AMYGDALA,
FUNCTIONS IN A QUAY THAT IS VERY
MUCH THE ORGANIZATION THAT WE
HAVE FOR THE STANDARD LOOPS,
THAT FUNNEL INTO A LEVEL THAT IS
COMPARABLE TO THE STRIATUM WHICH
IS THIS CENTRAL AMYGDALA,
STRIATAL IN NATURE AND
STRUCTURE, AND FUNNELS BACK, SO
THIS HAS IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS
INTO HOW EFFECTIVE INFORMATION
IS ACTUALLY EMBEDDED IN THE
ENTIRE ARCHITECTURE AS OPPOSED
TO HYPOTHALAMUS OR AMYGDALA,
PERHAPS PARTS OF THE INSULA.
MODELS ENTERTAINING AND
PROMOTING INSTEAD OF HAVING THAT
DUAL PATHWAY ARE MODELS IN WHICH
COGNITION ARE HEAVILY INTEGRATED
WITH EMOTION AND MOTIVATION.
I'M GOING TO END HERE AND HAVE
ENORMOUS THANK YOU THAT I HAVE
TO GIVE TO LESLIE AND ALL THE
LBC FAMILY FOR REALLY
TRANSFORMING MY LIFE COMPLETELY
AND, YEAH, THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
[APPLAUSE]
>>WE'LL HAVE DAVID VAN ESSEN,
ALUMNI ENDOWED PROFESSOR OF
NEUROSCIENCE AT WASHINGTON
UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS, HE'S
GOING TO JOIN US BY ZOOM THIS
AFTERNOON, HE COULD NOT TRAVEL
HERE.
I THINK HE'S ALL CUED UP AND
READY.
SO OVER TO YOU, DAVID.
>> CAN YOU HEAR ME OKAY?
>> YES.
>> I'M SORRY AND DISAPPOINTED
COVID STRUCK AND GROUNDED ME IN
ST. LOUIS, BUT DELIGHTED I COULD
SPEAK TO YOU THIS AFTERNOON,
GREATLY ENJOYED ALL OF THE
PRECEDING PRESENTATIONS AND
COMMENTARIES.
I REALLY COMMEND SHRUTI AND
ORGANIZERS BRINGING THIS
TOGETHER.
I STARTED THINKING HOW I WOULD
START MY PRESENTATION, I
REALIZED THERE WERE A NUMBER OF
STRIKING PARALLELS LESLIE AND I
SHARED STUDYING PRIMATE CORE
EFFECTS OVER FIVE DECADES,
PH.D.s A YEAR APART, HERS LED
TO A PUBLICATION IN SCIENCE,
MINE DID NOT.
LESLIE DID FAMOUS POSTDOCTORAL
TRAINING WITH MORT MISHKIN, WE
SET UP OUR LABORATORY OPERATIONS
IN THE LATE '70s, AND STUDIED
VISUAL CORTEX IN MACAQUE USING
ANATOMICAL PHYSIOLOGIC METHODS,
PUBLISHED OUR FIRST PAPER ON
CORTICAL VISUAL AREAS CHOOSING
MT AS OUR AREAS, THAT YOU HEARD
A LOT ABOUT.
I INTRODUCED MAPS, WE USED IT IN
MY LAB, PARTICULARLY VISUAL
AREAS, YOU HEARD ALREADY LESLIE
AND RICARDO AND OTHERS USED THE
FLAT MAPPING TECHNIQUE, MEMBERS
OF THE FREQUENT FLYER CLUB, FOR
WIDELY USING THEM.
WE'LL TALK MORE ABOUT THEM
LATER.
BOTH LABS PUT INTENSIVE EFFORTS
INTO GENERATING WIRING DIAGRAMS
TO BETTER UNDERSTAND CORTICAL
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION, OUR
LABORATORY EMPHASIZED THE
DISTRIBUTED HIERARCHICALLY
PROCESSING THAT JOHN MANSEL AND
I POSTULATED, LESLIE AND
COLLEAGUES EMPHASIZED PROCESSING
STREAMS, WHAT AND WHERE STREAMS
THAT LESLIE AND MORT MADE FAMOUS
AND HAVE BEEN SO INFLUENTIAL.
IN THE '90s LESLIE AND MY LAB
MAINTAINED INVOLVEMENT IN
MACAQUE RESEARCH BUT SPREAD
EFFORTS TO INCLUDE EXTENSIVE
STUDIES ON USING HUMAN
NEUROIMAGING.
AS YOU HEARD, LESLIE'S
DISCOVERED RELATING TO HUMAN
COGNITION, MY LAB ON BRAIN
MAPPING METHODS AND EVOLVED INTO
MAJOR EFFORT IN HUMAN CONNECTOME
PROJECT.
LESLIE AND I SHARED LEADERSHIP
EFFORTS, BOTH FOUNDING COUNCIL
MEMBERS FOR ORGANIZATION FOR
HUMAN BRAIN MAPPING, I BECAME
THE FIRST CHAIR, LESLIE
SUCCEEDED TO YEARS LATER.
WE WERE A DECADE LATER MEMBERS
OF THE SOCIETY FOR NEUROSCIENCE
COUNCIL, ENJOYED THAT SHARED
OPPORTUNITY.
THE LAST POINT IS THAT I WAS ON
THE NIMH BOARD OF SCIENTIFIC
COUNSELORS THAT YOU HEARD ABOUT
FROM TOM ALBRIGHT AND MANY
OTHERS, AND IN 2020 LATE IN THAT
YEAR WE WERE LOOKING FORWARD TO
ANOTHER OUTSTANDING PRESENTATION
FROM LESLIE SHOWING WHAT HER
GROUP HAD ACCOMPLISHED AND HAD
ASPIRATIONS FOR IN THE FUTURE
AND SADLY THAT ENDED IN HER
PREMATURE DEATH AND THE END OF
THAT REMARKABLE ERA.
AS PEOPLE TALKED ABOUT JOYS AND
INTERESTING TRAINING EXPERIENCES
WRITING PAPERS WITH LESLIE, I
STARTED THINKING ABOUT THE ERDO
NUMBER, THE SO-CALLED
COLLABORATIVE DISTANCE AND
ANOTHER PERSON BASED ON SHARED
AUTHORSHIP.
MANY PEOPLE IN THE ROOM AND
PARTICULARLY AMONG SPEAKERS HAVE
AN UNGERLEIDER NUMBER,
CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF UNITY,
HAVE SHARED AUTHORSHIP WITH ONE
OTHER INDIVIDUAL.
I STARTED THINKING HAD I EVER
WRITTEN A PAPER WITH LESLIE?
I DON'T REMEMBER THE EXPERIENCE
OF HER SCRIBBLING ON MY
MANUSCRIPT BUT FOUND PubMed
AFFIRMS I HAVE AN UNGERLEIDER
NUMBER OF 1, BECAUSE IN 2020
THERE WAS A PUBLICATION IN
"NEURON" FROM A MEETING REPORT
BASICALLY AND YOU CAN SEE THAT
LESLIE AND I ARE BOTH OFFICIAL
CO-AUTHORS, WE DIDN'T ACTUALLY
WORK TOGETHER ON A DRAFT, YOU
CAN SEE LESLIE IS CLOSER TO
BEING THE SENIOR AUTHOR THAN I
AM TO BEING FIRST AUTHOR, BUT
THAT'S THE CLOSEST I CAN COME TO
THE INTERESTING STORIES WE'VE
HEARD FROM MANY OTHERS.
IN THINKING ABOUT WHAT
SPECIFICALLY TO TALK ABOUT ON
SCIENTIFIC FRONT, I CHOSE TO
FOLLOW THE THEME THAT SEVERAL
HAVE MENTIONED OF LESLIE PUSHING
TO LOOK AT BIG QUESTIONS,
IMPORTANT ISSUES.
AND TWO QUESTIONS I WANT TO
ADDRESS ARE CORTICAL FOLDING AND
CORTICAL PARCELLATION, LATTER
BEING THE ONE LESLIE AS YOU
HEARD WORKED INTENSIVELY ON
HERSELF.
I'M GOING TO BREAK THIS INTO A
VERY SHORT UPDATE ON WHERE WE
CURRENTLY STAND ON TRYING TO GET
CONSENSUS PARCELLATION FOR
MACAQUE, STILL A LONG WAYS OFF,
AND I'LL TURN TO HUMAN CORE
TENSION AND TALK ABOUT THE
INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY,
PARTICULARLY IN CORTICAL FOLDING
PATTERNS, AND USE THAT TO LEAD
INTO THE QUESTION OF WHAT IS IT
THAT MAKES THE CORTEX FOLD,
SOMETHING I'VE BEEN INTERESTED
IN FOR MANY YEARS, AND I'LL GIVE
AN UPDATED MODEL ON HOW I THINK
THAT PROCESS COMES ABOUT.
I'LL SHIFT OVER TO THE HUMAN
CONNECTOME PROJECT MULTI-MODEEL
PARCELLATION AND TELL YOU WHAT
IT HAS ACHIEVED AND WHAT I THINK
IT'S USEFUL FOR AND RETURN VERY
BRIEFLY TO THE ISSUE OF WHERE DO
WE GO GETTING IMPROVED MACAQUE
PARCELLATIONS.
STARTING AT THE TOP OF THE LIST,
HERE YOU SEE THE FLATMAP FROM
OUR LAB, HERE IS RICARDO'S MOST
RECENT FROM THE UNGERLEIDER
ORBIT.
BOTH MAPS HAVE DIFFERENT NAMING
SCHEMES, EVEN DIFFERENT
ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES BUT IT'S
HARD TO COMPARE THEM JUST
LOOKING AT FLATMAPS SIDE BY
SIDE, DIFFERENT IN SHAPE AND WE
DON'T HAVE ACCURATE ALIGNMENT
BETWEEN THEM.
MAJOR STEP FORWARD IN GETTING
BETTER GROUNDING ON THIS
INVOLVES USE OF MRI-BASED
SURFACE-BASED ATLASES LIKE THIS,
USED TO GET EARLY PARCELLATION
ON AN ATLAS AND EARLY VERSION OF
THE UNGERLEIDER AND DESIMONE
PARCELLATION AND MANY OTHER
PARCELLATIONS IN THIS
COLLECTION, PLUS THERE'S A A
LOT OF DATA OUT THERE ABOUT
SURFACE-BASED ANALYSES AND THE
LIKE.
UNFORTUNATELY, THE REALITY IS
THAT THERE ARE MANY
INCONSISTENCIES ACROSS THESE
VARIOUS PARCELLATIONS THEMES, NO
ONE CAN AGREE ON THE PRECISE
EXTENT, THERE'S NOT A CONSENSUS
NOTION OF HOW PRE-MOTOR CORTEX
OR MANY OTHER REGIONS SHOULD BE
PARCELLATED.
LET'S SHIFT TO HUMAN CORTEX, 20
TIMES AS LARGE AS MACAQUE
CORTEX, OBVIOUSLY FAR MORE
CONVOLUTED.
IT'S MUCH MORE VARIABLE IN THIS
FOLDING PATTERN AS YOU CAN SEE
IN LATERAL VIEWS OF FOUR
HEMISPHERE OR IN THESE INFLATED
MAPS, WHERE YOU CAN SEE EVERYONE
HAS A REASONABLY SIMILAR CENTRAL
SULCUS BUT HIGHER COGNITIVE
REGIONS THE FOLDING PATTERN IS
WILDLY DIFFERENT FROM ONE
INDIVIDUAL TO THE NEXT, EVEN IN
IDENTICAL TWINS AS THESE TWO
PAIRS SHOW HERE.
SO THAT'S TELLING US RIGHT OFF
THE BAT IT'S UNLIKELY THAT THE
PRESCRIPTION FOR GENERATING
PRECISE FOLDING PATTERN COMES
DIRECTLY FROM SPECIFIC SET OF
GENETIC INSTRUCTIONS, SOMETHING
ELSE IS GOING ON.
ANOTHER IMPORTANT ISSUE IS THAT
CORTICAL AREAS VARY IN SIZE FROM
ONE INDIVIDUAL TO ANOTHER, HERE
IS ONE PERSON'S IN RED, ANOTHER
SMALLER, VARY IN SIZE AND WHERE
THE CORTICAL FOLDS OCCUR.
THAT BRINGS US TO THE QUESTION
WHAT IS IT THAT MAKES THE CORTEX
FOLD.
WE KNOW WHEN IT FOLDS, IN HUMANS
DURING THE THIRD TRIMESTER, A
NEONATE CORTEX IS ALMOST AS
FOLDED AS IT WILL BE IN ADULT
EVEN THOUGH ONE-THIRD THE TOTAL
SIZE.
MY INTEREST IN THIS BEGAN
SERENDIPITOUSLY WHEN TOM KOOGAN
AND I NOTICED THE PROJECTIONS
ARE ESTABLISHED AROUND THE TIME
THE GYRUS FORMS BETWEEN V1 AND
V2, THE LIGHT BULB MOMENT FOR ME
ELICITING THE HYPOTHESIS
MECHANICAL TENSION ALONG
MILLIONS OF AXONS TRAVERSING
PATH FROM V1 TO V2 MIGHT
GENERATE ENOUGH PHYSICAL FORCE
TO CAUSE A GYRAL FOLD IN
BETWEEN, WHEREAS SULCUS WOULD BE
THE OUTCOME OF LOSING BATTLE
SUPPORTED BY FEWER NUMBERS OF
AXONS.
THIS HYPOTHESIS AND NATURAL
EXTENSIONS OF IT CAN ACCOUNT FOR
BOTH CONSISTENCY AND VARIABILITY
ACROSS SPECIES AND ACROSS
INDIVIDUALS.
IT CAN ALSO ACCOUNT FOR WHY THE
CORTEX IS A THIN SHEET IF WE
TAKE IN -- ADD IN HYPOTHESIS
THAT MECHANICAL TENSION ALONG
THE APICAL DENDRITES WOULD KEEP
UPPER AND LOWER LAYERS HUGGING
CLOSE TO ONE ANOTHER AND INDUCE
EXPANSION OF THE SURFACE AREA OF
THE CORTICAL SHEATH.
THIS IS AN ATTRACTIVE
HYPOTHESIS, NOT THE WHOLE STORY.
WHAT WE NEED TO APPRECIATE IS
THAT LIKE ALL DEVELOPMENTAL
MECHANISMS OF COMPLEX PHENOMENA,
MANY ARE LIKELY TO CONTRIBUTE
AND WE NEED AN INTEGRATED MODEL,
AND TO THAT END I'M GOING TO RUN
THROUGH THREE CLASSES OF MODEL,
EACH HAVING MULTIPLE MECHANISMS.
RADIAL DISPERSION MODEL THAT
BURRELL AND COLLEAGUES
ARTICULATED, STARTS WITH
ATTRACTIVE NOTION THAT
DIFFERENTIAL NEURONAL FILTRATION
NEAR VENTRICULAR ZONE GENERATES
MOUNDS, HILLS, VALLEYS THAT LIE
UNDER PROSPECTIVE GYRI AND
SULCI, TO A FAIR DEGREE IN THE
FERRET CAN'T ACCOUNT FOR
INTRICACIES OF CORTICAL FOLDING
IN THE HUMAN CORTEX AND OTHER
NON-HUMAN PRIMATES.
NONETHELESS THE HYPOTHESIS IS
THAT THIS IS SUPPLEMENTED BY
DIFFERENTIAL RADIAL GLIAL
PROLIFERATION CREATING A
SCAFFOLD THAT GUIDE NEURONAL
GYRATION AND THE THIRD AND I
THINK THE WEAKEST LINK IN THIS
HYPOTHETICAL CHAIN IS IDEA
RADIAL INTERPOLATION MODES PUSH
CELLS TO THE SIDE.
PUTTING THAT HYPOTHESIS TO THE
SIDE FOR THE MOMENT, TURN TO
ANOTHER CLASSIC MODEL,
INTRIGUING MODEL CALLED GEL
BRAIN BILAYER, FORM OF
MULTI-LAYERED DIFFERENTIAL
EXPANSION, AND IT STARTS WITH
THE HYPOTHESIS THAT BRAIN GETS
ITS EARLY SHAPE THAT YOU SEE IN
THE FAR RIGHT HERE BY
UNSPECIFIED MEANS, THE MODEL
SAYS THAT DIFFERENTIAL
TANGENTIAL EXPANSION WITH
CORTICAL SHEET EXPANDING MORE
RAPIDLY THAN THE UNDERLYING
WHITE MATTER AND SUBCORTICAL
NUCLEI DRIVES FOLDING AND THEY
DEMONSTRATE ATTRACTIVENESS OF
THE IDEA BY TAKE LITERALLY A
PHYSICAL GEL-BRAIN, ELASTIMER
AND ADDING A THIN LAYER OF
ELASTIMER THAT EXPANDS IN
SOLVENT, EXPANSION TAKES PLACE,
OBJECT CRUMBLES AND FOLDS AS
DOES A COMPUTER SIMULATION.
THEY USE THIS TO EMPHASIZE THE
IDEA MECHANICAL STRESS FIELDS IN
THIS MODEL MAY BIAS AXIS OF
FOLDING, NON-SPECIFIC BUCKLING
OCCURS IN MANY REGIONS.
IT IS ATTRACTIVE BUT I ALSO NOTE
THE MODEL HAS IMPLICIT
ASSUMPTIONS THAT INVOKE
MECHANICAL ATTENTION.
LET ME JUMP TO THE MODEL I
PREFER, THE COMPOSITE MODEL THAT
BORROWS WITH COMPONENTS OF ITS
OWN.
FIRST IS THE IDEA THAT RADIAL
TENSION PROMOTES TANGENTIAL
CORTICAL EXPANSION, SECOND IS
THIS ONE SIMILAR TO PREVIOUS
MODEL, DIFFERENTIAL TANGENTIAL
EXPANSION PROMOTES FOLDING BY
PATHWAY-SPECIFIC TENSION THAT
PROMOTES GYRAL FOLDS AND
TETHERING TENSION WITH MORE
DISTANT STRUCTURES, EQUIVALENT
OF BUCKLING.
TWO MORE MINOR BUT NOTED FOR THE
RECORD CONTRIBUTIONS OF
TANGENTIAL TENSION ARISING FROM
OUTERMOST LAYERS, CORTICAL LAYER
ONE, FROM THE MENINGEAL LAYERS
THAT MAY ADD TO THE EQUATION.
LAST MAJOR CATEGORY IS GEOMETRY
BIAS FOLD LOCATION, INCLUDES
DIFFERENTIAL PROLIFERATION OF
THE BORRELL MODEL, LIKE THE
LATERAL VENTRICLE AND
DIFFERENTIAL MIGRATION OF
REGIONS SUCH AS FORMATION OF
INSULA AS WELL AS MECHANICAL
STRESS FIELDS, THE IDEA BORROWED
FROM THE TALENE MODEL.
THE CONTRIBUTIONS SHOULD REDUCE
WRITING LENGTH AND INTERSTITIAL
SPACE AND LEAD TO COMPACT WIRING
OF THE BRAIN AS A WHOLE, A VERY
ATTRACTIVE OUTCOME UNDER
EVOLUTIONARY PRESSURE TO PERFORM
FAST AND WELL.
HOW DO WE EVALUATE THESE KINDS
OF MODELS?
JUST BRIEFLY WE HAVE TO EVALUATE
AGAINST EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE,
THERE'S A LOT OF IT OUT THERE,
I'VE CHOSEN 18 MAJOR
OBSERVATIONS THAT I THINK ANY
GOOD MODEL SHOULD BE ABLE TO
SUPPORT, AND NOTE THAT THE
RADIAL DIVERGENCE MODEL, THE
FIRST ONE, ACCOUNTS FOR SIX OF
THESE 18 NOTED OBSERVATIONS,
CONFLICTS WITH TWO FOR THE THIRD
MODEL MECHANISM OF THEIR MODEL.
DIFFERENTIAL TANGENTIAL
GEL-BRAIN ACCOUNTS FOR FOUR,
NEUTRAL WITH THE OTHERS, THE
MODEL I ADVOCATE WITH MANY
COMPONENTS INTRODUCES COMPONENTS
TO EXPLAIN ALL THESE VARIOUS
DIVERSE OBSERVATIONS.
THIS ISN'T THE END OF THE STORY
BUT I WOULD NOTE THERE ARE MANY
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTAL TESTS TO
DECIPHER AND COLLAR -- CLARIFY
WHICH ARE IMPORTANT.
MULTI-MODAL PARCELLATION, THIS
IS PIONEERED BY A TALENTED
MD/PHD STUDENT IN MY LAB WITH
WHOM I COLLABORATE, AND WE HELP
LEAD AND FORMULATE HCH-STYLE,
REMOVING NOISE, AND SEMI
AUTOMATED GRADIENT BASED
APPROACH, IDENTIFYING 180
CORTICAL AREAS, REPRODUCIBLE
EVEN IN UNUSUAL CASES, PROVIDES
VALUE FOR WHAT WE CALL
PARCELLATED ANALYSES.
IF YOU TAKE A STRUCTURAL MRI T1
WEIGHTED IMAGE, CORTICAL RIBBON
VARIES IN BRIGHTNESS, AND T2
WEIGHTED IMAGE FROM THE SAME
SUBJECT AT THE SAME LEVEL HAS A
COMPLEMENTARY FLUCTUATION IN
INTENSITY, IF WE TAKE THE T1 TO
T2 RATIO, COLORIZE, MAP TO
SURFACE, WE GET A PATTERN THAT
AGREES WELL WITH THE
HISTOLOGICALLY IDENTIFIED MYELIN
STAINS.
DO THIS FOR 210 SUBJECTS, ALIGN
ACCURATELY, WE GET A BEAUTIFUL
MYELIN MAP, PROVIDING INDICATORS
WHERE MYELIN CONTENT IS, THE
STREAKS ARE CANDIDATE AERIAL
BOUNDARIES.
SOME OF THESE FAINTER RIDGES ARE
ALSO TURNING OUT TO BE
SIGNIFICANT SUPPORTERS OF AERIAL
BOUNDARIES.
SO, MYELIN ALONE ISN'T ENOUGH.
WE MAKE A BETTER ESTIMATE OF
INTRINSIC ANATOMICAL THICKNESS,
GET GRADIENTS INFORMATIVE IN
MANY REGIONS OF CANDIDATE AERIAL
BOUNDARIES.
ANOTHER MODALITY IS TASK fMRI,
HERE IS ONE OF SEVEN TASKS, 46
TASK CONTRASTS, IN THIS CASE
LESSENING TO STORIES COMPARED TO
A BASELINE AND YOU CAN SEE MANY
DIFFERENT ACTIVATION FOCI
INCLUDING ONE IN JUST IN FRONT
OF MOTOR CORTEX THAT I'LL TALK
MORE ABOUT, GRADIENTS ARE
ROBUST, SIMILARLY FOR MANY
OTHERS.
THE MOST INFORMATIVE OF ALL THE
MODALITIES WE USED WAS
FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY FROM
RESTING STATE SCANS, WE SEE
CORRELATING FLUCTUATIONS
REFERRED TO AS FUNCTIONAL
CONNECTIVITY.
IF WE TAKE A NEARBY SEED
LOCATION, SEE A DIFFERENT
PATTERN, GOING ONE STEP FARTHER
MEDIAL, REPLICATES A PATTERN
SIMILAR TO ORIGINAL, TAKE THE
GRADIENT FOR SEED LOCATIONS GET
A MAP OF FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY
GRADIENTS.
EXEMPLAR AREA 55B, NOTE THE
MYELIN GRADIENT RUNS AROUND THIS
WHITE BOUNDARY AS DOES THE TASK
fMRI GRADIENT FROM THE VERSUS
BASELINE CONTRAST, FUNCTIONAL
CONNECTIVITY FROM SEED
LOCATIONS, ONE LOCATION
HIGHLIGHT THE CENTRAL REGION AND
SEEDS IN OTHER REGIONS AVOIDED
OVERALL GRADIENT AGREES WITH THE
OTHER MODALITIES THAT WE'VE
SEEN, AND WE CALL THIS AREA
55B, IDENTIFIED A HALF CENTURY
AGO.
MATT AND I AND COLLEAGUES
APPLIED THIS APPROACH TO
IDENTIFY AERIAL BOUNDARIES AND
CORTICAL AREAS IN ALL THE
NEOCORTEX, YOU SEE A SUMMARY MAP
OF THESE AREAS AND WE'VE GIVEN
THEM LABELS, 83 OF THEM ARE
REPLICATING PREVIOUSLY REPORTED
AREAS IN LITERATURE, 97 NEWLY
IDENTIFIED, SOME BY SPLITTING
INTO TWO OR THREE SUBREGIONS,
VARYING IN SIZE AND SHAPE, ALL
180 AREAS REPLICATED ON THE
RIGHT, ASYMMETRIES BUT THEY ARE
SURPRISINGLY MODEST, MAINLY
INVOLVING LANGUAGE RELATED
AREAS.
WE GOT AN ALGORITHM TO IDENTIFY
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTS, THIS
ALGORITHM TAKES EACH SURFACE
VERTEX, IDENTIFIED AND COMPARES
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT TO GROUP
AVERAGE FEATURE VECTOR TO SAY IS
IT MORE LIKELY TO BE 55B OR
NEIGHBORING AREA WITH A WINNER
TAKES ALL DECISION.
THIS WORKS EXTREMELY WELL IN THE
SAME INDIVIDUAL WHO COMES BACK A
MONTH LATER FOR INDEPENDENT SET
OF MULTI-MODAL SCANS, YIELDS
ESSENTIALLY THE SAME ANSWER FOR
THIS PARTICULAR AREA.
THIS WORKS EVEN FOR OUTLIER
PATTERNS SUCH AS INDIVIDUAL WHO
HAS A SPLIT AREA 55B WITH
DIFFERENT AREA RUNNING IN
BETWEEN, OR WITH SHIFTED AREA
55B CONSISTENTLY IDENTIFIED IN
THE RETEST MODE.
WE DO THIS ACROSS ALL 210 AREAS
NOT JUST OUR POSTER CHILD 55B WE
CAN WITH HIGH CONFIDENCE
IDENTIFY NEARLY ALL AREAS,
NEARLY ALL SUBJECTS FOR THE
ORIGINAL PARCELLATION GROUP AND
FOR SEPARATE SET OF VALIDATION
GROUP INDIVIDUALS COMPLETELY
INDEPENDENT WE GET ALMOST 97%
DETECTION RATE.
NOT ALL AREAS ARE COMPLETELY
PRECISELY ALIGNED, EVEN THOUGH
WE'VE DONE AERIAL FEATURE BASED
ALIGNMENT BUT GET PROBABILISTIC
MAPS OF HOW TIGHTLY ALIGNED SOME
AREAS ARE V1 AND M1 AND HOW MUCH
LOCAL FLUCTUATIONS THERE ARE FOR
OTHER AREAS, AGAIN, REPEATABLE
ACROSS THE PARCELLATION AND
VALIDATION INDEPENDENT GROUPS.
WHAT IS THIS GOOD FOR?
YOU CAN TAKE ANY NEUROIMAGING
DATA INCLUDING MANY WE'VE SEEN
BEFORE YESTERDAY AND TODAY AND
DO A PARCELLATED ANALYSIS, GET A
CLEANER AND HIGHER SIGNAL TO
NOISE EVALUATION OF A MYELIN
MAP, FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY
MAPS, VARIOUS SORTS, AND MANY
OTHER TYPES OF INFORMATION.
I WOULD CHALLENGE THE
NEUROIMAGERS TO ASK WHETHER YOUR
OWN RESEARCH MIGHT BENEFIT FROM
HCH-STYLE, AND USING DATA
PRE-PROCESSING FOR THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX MOST IMPORTANTLY INVOLVES
SURFACE-BASED ANALYSES, NOT JUST
GETTING FREE SURFER RUNNING BUT
WE ADVOCATE BOTH TO GET BETTER
MYELIN MAP AND REGISTRATION.
ONCE YOU ANALYZE DATA TO
REGISTER YOUR DATA TO THE
SURFACE BASED ATLAS, APPLY
PARCELLATED ANALYSIS I JUST
SHOWED YOU, TO GET BETTER
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND
INCREASED NEUROBIOLOGICAL
INTERPRETABILITY RESULTS.
AND THEN IF YOU SHARE THESE DATA
USING WHAT WE CALL SCENE FILES
AND CONNECTOME WORKBENCH, MAKE
THEM PUBLICLY AVAILABLE YOU'LL
BE PROVIDING A SERVICE TO
YOURSELF AND TO THE COMMUNITY.
SO, VERY BRIEFLY WHERE DO WE GO
NOW THAT WE'VE SEEN WHAT CAN BE
DONE USING A LOT OF HIGH QUALITY
DATA IN HUMANS, WE GO BACK TO
MUCH SMALLER MACAQUE, EVEN
TINIER MARMOSET, WHAT WOULD IT
TAKE TO GENERATE MACAQUE
PARCELLATION AS CLOSE TO WHAT WE
THINK OR CONTEND THE HCP
PARCELLATION IS TO GROUND TRUTH
IN MACAQUE, COULDN'T WE JUST DO
THE SAME THING OVER WITH THE
SAME PARADIGM?
NOT EASILY IS THE SHORT ANSWER.
BRAINS ARE SO MUCH SMALLER AND
SPATIAL GRADIENTS FROM USING
MRI-BASED ANALYSES ARE FEWER AND
FAINTER, AND ALSO HARD TO SCAN
HUNDREDS OR THOUSANDS OF
INDIVIDUAL MONKEYS, THAT'S NOT
IMPOSSIBLE.
COLLABORATION THAT WE HAVE
BETWEEN MATT AND MY GROUP AND
THE ONE IN JAPAN, HENRY KENNEDY
IN LEONE, A PROJECT AIMS TO GET
BETTER DATA QUALITY USING BETTER
HEAD COILS, IMPROVED
PRE-PROCESSING, AND TO COMBINE
THAT WITH MULTI-MODAL HISTOLOGY
AND INTEGRATED HISTOLOGY AND MRI
VISUALIZATION USING CONNECTOME
WORKBENCH, A QUICK FLAVOR HERE
ARE ONE LEVEL OF IMPROVEMENT IN
MIL OF MYELIN MAPS, ON THE RIGHT
FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY IN
MACAQUE, NOT NEARLY AS SPATIALLY
CRISP AND INFORMATIVE AS IT IS
IN THE HUMAN BUT WE HOPE TO GET
SOME IMPROVEMENTS, AND HERE IS
EXAMPLE OR TWO OF THE
HISTOLOGY-BASED IDENTIFICATION
OF CORTICAL AREAS WE'RE GOING TO
BE DOING BY ALIGNING HISTOLOGY
SECs TO MRI SCANS, COMPARING
SPATIAL GRADIENTS AND HOPE TO
MAKE MAJOR PROGRESS PARCELLATING
THE MACAQUE AND MARMOSET CORTEX.
[APPLAUSE]
>> I DON'T KNOW IF THAT WAS
PLANNED BUT I THINK HE WAS CLOSE
TO THE END, IF YOU HAVE ANY
QUESTIONS FOR HIM I'M SURE HE
WILL BE HAPPY TO GET THOSE BY
E-MAIL.
PLEASE REACH OUT TO HIM.
WE'RE AT THE LAST TALK FOR THIS
FANTASTIC TWO-DAY CELEBRATION.
AND I'M THRILLED TO INTRODUCE MY
DEAR FRIEND AND COLLABORATOR
JESS TAUBERT, WHO IS AN ARC
FUTURE FELLOW, RIGHT NOW
UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND, A
POSTDOC WITH LESLIE, WORKING ON
THE NON-HUMAN PRIMATE SIDE OF
THINGS, RECENTLY MOVED TO
AUSTRALIA TO START HER OWN LAB.
SHE WAS THE LAST POSTDOC, LESLIE
KNEW OF YOU GOING TO AUSTRALIA,
AND I KNOW LESLIE WAS VERY, VERY
PROUD.
TODAY SHE'S GOING TO TELL US
ABOUT A SERIES OF STUDIES THAT
SHE DID HERE AND ALSO STUFF
SHE'S THINKING OF NOW.
SO WELCOME, JESS.
TAKE IT AWAY.
[APPLAUSE]
>> THANK YOU.
HELLO, EVERYONE.
FIRST, I HAVE TO START BY
THANKING THE ORGANIZERS AND NIMH
FOR PUTTING TOGETHER WHAT HAS
BEEN A FANTASTIC COUPLE DAYS.
IT'S BEEN INSPIRING.
I'M SO HONORED I CAN BE HERE.
THAT I WAS GIVEN THE INVITATION.
THANK YOU SO MUCH.
SHRUTI GAVE CONTEXT, I WAS A
RESEARCH FELLOW WITH LESLIE FOR
FIVE YEARS, I WAS STILL HERE
WHEN SHE PASSED.
TODAY I'VE CHOSEN TO TALK ABOUT
SOME DATA THAT I WAS STILL
COLLECTING AT THAT TIME.
THE REASON THESE DATA ARE
SPECIAL TO ME IS BECAUSE IT WAS
THE TOPIC OF OUR VERY LAST
CONVERSATION.
THAT TOOK PLACE ABOUT TWO OR
THREE DAYS BEFORE SHE PASSED
AWAY.
AS HAS BEEN MENTIONED BY A FEW
PEOPLE SHE WASN'T FEELING
PARTICULARLY WELL THAT WEEK.
SHE HAD BEEN EXPERIENCING SOME
PAIN, AND SHE WAS ALREADY
ANXIOUS ABOUT THE BSC, ALREADY
MENTIONED QUITE A FEW TIMES.
SHE TOLD ME THIS AT THE
BEGINNING OF THE MEETING.
I SAID, LESLIE, GO HAVE A REST.
THERE'S ABSOLUTELY NO REASON TO
TALK ABOUT THESE DATA RIGHT NOW.
WE CAN TALK ABOUT THESE DATA ANY
OLD TIME.
SHE WAS NEVER ONE TO TAKE THAT
ADVICE.
WE TALKED ABOUT THESE DATA, WHAT
WAS PILOT DATA THEN, FOR AT
LEAST TWO HOURS, OR SOMETHING IN
THAT MAGNITUDE.
I THOUGHT IT WAS APPROPRIATE TO
SHARE THESE DATA WITH YOU TODAY,
YOU CAN SEE WHAT SHE WAS SO
EAGER TO HEAR ABOUT.
SO ELEPHANTS, LIKE MANY OTHER
MAMMALS, ARE BORN READY TO MOVE.
SURVIVAL DEPENDS ON IT.
PRIMATES ON THE OTHER HAND ARE
BORN SQUISHY, WE LACK THE
CAPACITY FOR INDEPENDENT
MOVEMENT.
PRIMATES ARE BORN WITHOUT TOOLS
FOR SURVIVAL, BORN READY TO
COMPLAIN, USING CALLS AND FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS TO SIGNAL NEEDS TO
NEARBY ADULTS HOPEFULLY WILLING
TO HELP US.
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS ARE PART OF A
SIMPLE SIGNAL COMMUNICATION
LOOK, EXPERIENCING PHYSIOLOGICAL
STATE LIKE HUNGER, CONTRACTS
MUSCLES IN THE FACE, CAUSING
CHANGE IN FACIAL APPEARANCE,
EXPRESSION IS THEN RECOGNIZED BY
A RECEIVER WHO CHANGES THEIR
BEHAVIOR IN SOME WAY AND
HOPEFULLY ALTERS THE STATE OF
THE SIGNALER.
AS ADULTS THERE ARE MEANT TO BE
SEVEN DISCRETE EMOTIONAL STATES
WE CAN SIGNAL TO PEOPLE AROUND
US.
THESE ARE THOUGHT TO BE
UNIVERSAL, HARD WIRED, BECAUSE
THEY REPRESENT IMMERSIONAL
STATES SHARED BY ALL PEOPLE AND
OTHER PRIMATES.
IT FOLLOWS THAT EXPRESSION
RECOGNITION ON THE RECEIVING END
OF THE LOOP WILL BE GOVERNED BY
SPECIALIZED NEURAL MECHANISMS
TUNED TO APPEARANCE.
THIS MODEL WAS INTRODUCED
YESTERDAY, IN THE LATE 1980s
EARLY SPECULATION THAT THE
MECHANISM SUPPORTING EXPRESSION
RECOGNITION WAS SEPARATE, FROM
THOSE SUPPORTING IDENTITY
RECOGNITION.
THIS SEPARATION FELT LOGICAL AND
NECESSARY BECAUSE UNLIKE
EXPRESSION RECOGNITION OUR
CAPACITY TO RECOGNIZE INDIVIDUAL
PEOPLE IS KNOWN TO BE CALIBRATED
WITH VISUAL INPUT AND
EXPERIENCE.
FOR EXAMPLE, EVEN WHEN YOU'RE
AUSTRALIAN YOU'RE NOT BORN READY
OR READY TO RECOGNIZE STEVE
IRWIN.
WHEN YOU SEE HIS FACE, WATCH HIS
SHOWS, YOU BUILD A
REPRESENTATION OF THE DIAGNOSTIC
INFORMATION AVAILABLE IN HIS
FACE AND CAN USE THAT
INFORMATION TO PAIR WITH HIS
NAME, WIDELY ACCEPTED THAT ALL
OF THIS REQUIRES VISUAL INPUT
AND EXPERIENCE.
ON THE OTHER HAND, YOU REQUIRE
NO PRIOR EXPERIENCE SPECIFICALLY
WITH STEVE'S FACE TO RECOGNIZE
THIS EXPRESSION HERE AS HAPPY.
EVEN IF HAPPINESS DOESN'T MAKE
SENSE WHEN YOU'RE CUDDLING A
CROCODILE, REINFORCED WHEN
NEUROIMAGING CAME OF AGE.
SINCE THEN FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
HAVE BEEN THOUGHT TO BE BUSINESS
OF THE SUPERIOR TEMPORAL SULCUS
IN GREEN ON THE MODEL.
REESE RHESUS MACAQUES ARE
THOUGHT TO HAVE THE SAME.
THIS ARC ARCHITECTURE HAS BEEN
POPULAR, NEVER CHALLENGED IN A
SERIOUS WAY IN FIELDS OF
PSYCHOLOGY OR NEUROSCIENCE.
WE LIKE THIS MODEL.
WHAP IF I GO -- BUT WHAT IF I GO
BACK TO THIS LOOP AND TOLD YOU
DIFFERENT CULTURES USE DIFFERENT
WORDS TO DESCRIBE STATES WE
DESCRIBE WITH SEVEN WORDS IN
ENGLISH.
THERE'S NO EVIDENCE SPECIFIC
STATES ARE LINKED TO SPECIFIC
MUSCLE CONTRACTION OR FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS.
WHAT IF I TOLD YOU IN REAL LIFE
NATURALISTIC FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
DON'T LOOK LIKE THE POSED FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS WE CAN GENERATE
UNDER STERILE LABORATORY
CONDITIONS, DIFFICULT TO
RECOGNIZE AS POSITIVE OR
NEGATIVE WITHOUT ADDITIONAL
INFORMATION.
WE NOW UNDERSTAND FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS ARE MUCH MORE
COMPLICATED AND NUANCED AS
SIGNALS THAN PREVIOUSLY
IMAGINED.
SO WHAT DOES THIS REAL WORLD
COMPLEXITY MEAN FOR OUR MODEL OF
EXPRESSION RECOGNITION?
DOES THIS BELOVED FUNCTIONAL
ARCHITECTURE STAND OUT UNDER
NATURALISTIC CONDITIONS?
ALTHOUGH THERE ARE LOTS OF WAYS
WE CAN ASK THIS QUESTION AND GET
AT THE ANSWER, TODAY I'M GOING
TO TAKE A DIRECT APPROACH AND
ASK A VERY SIMPLE QUESTION.
DO NATURALISTIC FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS ACTIVATE STS FACE
PATCHES IN MACAQUE BRAIN?
FRAMING HERE IS STRAIGHTFORWARD.
WE WANT TO VERIFY PHOTOGRAPHS OF
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MACAQUES
IN THE WILD GOING ABOUT THEIR
BUSINESS INTERACTING, ACTIVATE
THE GREEN FACE PATCHES KNOWN AS
AREA MF AND AF.
THESE ARE POSITIONED IN THE
FUNDUS OF THE SULCUS.
WE REASONED THESE PATCHES SHOULD
BE MORE ACTIVATED BY EMOTIONAL
EXPRESSIONS.
I HAVE A LARGE COLLECTION OF
PHOTOGRAPHS IN THE WILD OF
MACAQUES, BUT THE CHALLENGE AND
IMPORTANT QUESTION HERE WAS HOW
DO WE SELECT THE IMAGES TO
REPRESENT THE DIFFERENT
CONDITIONS HERE IN THIS
EXPERIMENT.
THE CONVENTIONAL APPROACH TO USE
SPECIFIC COMBINATIONS OF
FEATURES.
FOR EXAMPLE THE COMBINATION OF
12, 16, 25 AND 26 IS CBT, WE
HAVE A HABIT OF CALLING THIS THE
GRIMACE, ELICITING A STRONGER
RESPONSE THAN NEUTRAL FACES.
SEEMED TO US USING THIS TO
SELECTS PHOTOGRAPHS WITH AND
WITHOUT WOULD BE A STRONG TEST
WHETHER THE CURRENT MODEL OF
FACE PROCESS HOLDS UP.
HERE ARE EXAMPLES OF THE FACES
SELECTED TO REPRESENT, WHEN
YOU'RE NOT A CERTIFIED CODER
IT'S EASY TO SEE HOW FACES IN
RED FEAR GRIN DIFFER FROM THOSE
IN BLUE FEAR GRIN ABSENT
CONDITION.
HOWEVER, TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE
ARGUMENT THAT FEAR GRINS ARE NOT
ALWAYS USED TO SIGNAL FEAR PER
SE, WE WANTED TO CREATE A
PARALLEL STIMULUS SET SELECTING
STIM BY BASED ON CONTEXT.
MY POSTBAC FOUND VIDEOS OF
MACAQUE BEING SCARED,
INTIMIDATED, STARTLED BY
SOMETHING IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT,
AND TOOK A SINGLE FRAME FROM
THESE TO REPRESENT THAT
RESPONSE.
NEUTRAL WERE SELECTED FROM
VIDEOS WHEN MACAQUES WERE CALMLY
GOING ABOUT THEIR BUSINESS.
BECAUSE OF THE NATURE OF THE
SELECTION PROCESS THESE IMAGES
WERE MUCH MORE DEGRADED BY
CIRCUMSTANTIAL FACTORS LIKE BAD
LIGHTING, HEAD TURNS, MOTION
BLUR, THESE SOURCES OF
CIRCUMSTANTIAL NOISE WE AVOID IN
STUDIES OF FACE PERCEPTION, WE
DON'T LIKE THEM, WE TAKE THE
STIMULI OUT.
I WAS PESSIMISTIC ABOUT THE
OUTCOME OF CONTRAST BECAUSE I
BELIEVED THERE WAS TOO MUCH
NOISE AMONG THESE IMAGES TO FIND
ANYTHING.
WE ALSO INCLUDED HUMAN FACES IN
THE STUDY, PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN OF
ACTORS BROUGHT INTO A LAB, ASKED
TO PULL FEARFUL OR NEUTRAL
FACES, STIMULI VALIDATED BY
HUMAN BEHAVIOR, THE GOAL
STANDARD FOR STIMULUS SELECTION
IN THE FIELD PROVIDING IMPORTANT
CONTRAST, ADDRESSING CONCERN
COMPARING FEARFUL TO NEUTRAL
FACES WHAT WE'RE DOING IS
COMPARING VISUAL STIMULI THAT
DIFFER IN TERMS OF LOW LEVEL
VISUAL ATTRIBUTES.
FOR EXAMPLE, FEARFUL FACES HAVE
LOCAL REGIONS OF HIGH CONTRAST
ABSENT IN NEUTRAL FACES BECAUSE
OF THE OPEN MOUTH OR WIDER EYES
OR TEETH SHOWING.
IF THESE DIFFERENCES IN LOW
LEVEL ATTRIBUTES DRIVE VALENT
EFFECTS IN THE BRAIN HUMAN FACES
SHOULD BE JUST AS SPECIFIC.
WE SCANNED THREE COULDN'TS, 4.7
TESLA SCANNER, fMRI TECHNIQUE,
AWAKE, FIXATING WHILE WE
PRESENTED BLOCKS OF FACES THAT
DIFFERED IN VEILENS AND STIMULUS
SELECTION METHOD, PLOTTING
AVERAGE EFFECTS IF RESPONSE IS
ABOVE ZERO INDICATING THE
FEARFUL FACE DROVE GREATER
RESPONSE THAN NEUTRAL.
RESPONSE BELOW ZERO, NEUTRAL
DROVE GREATER RESPONSE.
HERE I'M PLOTTING FOR THE VISUAL
CORTEX, ANATOMICALLY DEFINED.
WHAT WE FOUND IS THAT THE
STIMULI SELECTED BASED ON
CONTEXT DROVE THE LARGEST
VALENCE EFFECTS, THREE RED LINES
REPRESENT INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT
DATA.
HERE WE WERE VISUALIZING USED
FIXED EFFECT, THE SAME PATTERN,
DOING A BETTER JOB OF EVOKING
VALENCE EFFECTS.
KEY QUESTION WHETHER VALENCE
EFFECT ARE SEATED IN THE FACE
PATCHES.
THE SAME CONTRAST IS PLOTTED
SEPARATELY FOR EACH SELECTION
CONDITIONS.
IF WE ZOOM IN, WE SEE ACTIVITY
IS NOT CLUSTERING IN THE FUNDUS
AS PREDICTED BUT YELLOW HOT
SPOTS ARE POSITIONED IN THE
LATERAL CONVEXITY.
WE ARE NOT THE FIRST TO FIND
THIS.
IN FACT, ALL STORIES THAT
COMPARED fMRI REPORTED POCKETS
OF DIFFERENTIAL ACTIVITY.
ALL OF THESE RESULTS ARE
REPLICATING AND REINFORCING
PREVIOUS FINDINGS.
NOW IF WE GO BACK AND DRAW A
GREEN OUTLINE TO DELINEATE FACE
SELECTIVE PATCHES, YELLOW
REGIONS ACTIVATED MORE BY
NATURALISTIC FEARFUL FACES FALL
OUTSIDE OF THE CONVENTIONAL FACE
PATCH NETWORK.
SO IN SUM THESE RESULTS
DEMONSTRATE USING NATURALISTIC
EXPRESSION CAN FIND VALENCE
EFFECTS IN THE VISUAL CORTEX BUT
DON'T EMERGE WHEN WE EXPECT THEM
TO.
THAT SAID IN MY VIEW ONE OF THE
MOST INTERESTING FINDINGS IN
THESE RESULTS IS HOW INEFFECTIVE
THE FEATURE BASED STIMULI WERE.
WHY WOULD YOU PREDICT STIMULI
HERE THAT ARE THAT HAVE GOT THIS
CONTEXTUAL NOISE WOULD ELICIT
STRONGER VALENCE EFFECTS THAN
THESE WITH A CLEAR DIFFERENCE IN
FACIAL EXPRESSION.
AND TO FIND THE ANSWER WE NEED
TO TURN TO MACAQUE BEHAVIOR.
I'M GOING TO SHOW PILOT DATA
COLLECTED FROM FOUR MACAQUES
TRAINED TO PERFORM A CONDITION
TO ALTERNATIVE.
MOST PLEASANT DEFINED AS NEUTRAL
OR LIP SMACKS, THESE SUBJECTS
HAD A BIAS TO NEUTRAL FACES AND
LIP SMACKS, AVOIDING THREATENING
FACES.
WE WERE TRYING TO LEAN IN AND
REINFORCE SPONTANEOUS BEHAVIOR.
AFTER TRAINING WE PROBED WITH
TRIALS DEPICTING PAIRS OF FACES
THEY HADN'T SEEN BEFORE.
THESE TRIALS WERE NOT
DIFFERENTIALLY REINFORCED, WE
WERE LOOKING FOR INDICATION OF
WHICH FACE WAS PERCEIVED AS MOST
PLEASANT.
THE RESULTS AVERAGING INDICATE
UNLIKE LIP SMACKS IN RED OR OPEN
MOUTH THREATS IN PURPLE, FEAR
GRINS VARIED IN HOUR FREQUENTLY
THEY WERE SELECTED AS MOST
PLEASANT FACE.
THIS INDICATES THAT NOT ALL FEAR
GRINS ARE EQUAL, INSTEAD MEANING
MAY VARY.
TO BETTER ILLUSTRATE THIS POINT
WITH FACIAL SIGNALS WE CAN
UNDERSTAND AS HUMANS, THINK
ABOUT THIS.
IN TERMS OF ACTION UNITS AND
EXACT FACIAL FEATURE THESE TWO
EXPRESSIONS ARE ACTUALLY
SIMILAR, BOTH ARE HAPPY FACES.
YET THEIR MEANING AND VALENCE IS
DIFFERENT.
FACE ON THE TOP IS POSITIVE,
SIGNALING AFFILIATION, INCREASED
APPROACHABILITY, THE FACE ON THE
BOTTOM IS RATHER NEGATIVE IN
TERMS OF VALENCE, TRIGGERING
UNCANNY VALLEY, MAKING US FEEL
UNEASY, AND SIGNAL SOME KIND OF
THREAT.
GOING BACK TO THE fMRI DATA,
FEAR GRINS DID NOT DRIVE A
STRONG VALENCE EFFECT, THIS
MIGHT BE BECAUSE WE WERE
AVERAGING THAT DIFFERED IN HOW
PLEASANT THEY WERE.
THE PICTURE PAINTED HERE IS IT
SEEMS POSSIBLE THE VENTRAL
VISUAL CORTEX IS ENCODING
EMOTIONAL MEANING RATHER THAN
SPECIFIC VISUAL PROPERTIES OF
FACES.
FACES WE SELECTED IN THE CONTEXT
BASED CONDITION MAY HAVE BEEN
MORE CONSISTENT IN THEIR
MESSAGING AND THAT'S WHY THEY
DROVE STRONGER VALENCE EFFECTS
IN THE BRAIN BUT IN TRUTH THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THESE TWO
GROUPS OF FACES IS IN THE EYE OF
THE BEHOLDER.
I'VE BEEN TRYING TO CONVINCE YOU
THE TWO GROUPS DIFFER IN TERMS
OF EMOTIONAL CONTEXT BUT THEY
COULD DIFFER IN ANY NUMBER OF
THINGS.
AND LOTS OF RESULTS IN COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE ARE CONSTRAINED BY
STIMULUS SECTION AND RESEARCH
BIASES, PROBLEMS TEND TO BE
AMPLIFIED WHEN WORKING WITH
NON-HUMAN PRIMATES BECAUSE I
THINK BETSY POINTED OUT WE'RE
NOT RHESUS MACAQUES AND IT'S
DIFFICULT TO KNOW WHAT THEY SEE
IN PARTICULAR STIMULI IN THE
SOCIAL DOMAIN, HARD TO SELECT
STIMULI TO REPRESENT THESE MORE
COMPLEX DOMAINS.
TO GET A BETTER HANDLING WE ARE
NOW PORTING THIS FROM THE MONKEY
TO THE HUMAN WHERE WE CAN
COLLECT DETAILED RESPONSES
BEFORE TRYING TO MEASURE AND
UNDERSTAND PATTERNS OF NEURAL
ACTIVITY.
TO THAT END TWO STUDENTS IN MY
LAB COLLECTED A THOUSAND
NATURALLIC EXPRESSIONS, THE WILD
FACES DATABASES, WFD.
IT'S NOT JUST FINDING A SET OF
FACES AND ASSUMING WE'RE
CAPTURING NATURALISTIC
EXPRESSIONS THAT EVERYBODY CAN
RECOGNIZE WE'RE TAKING A DATA
DRIVEN APPROACH.
WE'VE RUN AN ONLINE EXPERIMENT
WHERE WE ASKED 200 PARTICIPANTS
TO CATEGORIZE IN TERMS OF
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION, GIVEN NINE
OPTIONS, HAPPY, SAD, ANGRY,
FEAR, SURPRISE, DISGUST,
NEUTRAL, UNKNOWN, OTHER.
WE ASKED THEM TO INDICATE HOW
INTENSE AND HOW AUTHENTIC OR
GENUINE EACH EXPRESSION WAS
USING SLIDING BAR.
WE ALSO ASKED TO RATE A THOUSAND
FACES FROM EXISTING DATABASES, A
THOUSAND FACES SELECTED FROM THE
10K U.S. ADULT FACES DATABASE,
IMAGES SCRAPED FROM THE INTERNET
WITH SINGLE SEARCH TERM, HAVEN'T
HAD ANY FURTHER SELECTION BIASES
INVOLVED.
USING RESPONSES OF THE
CATEGORIZATION TASK WE'VE
COMPUTED EACH IMAGE'S MODE
EXPRESSION, AND WHEN WE LOOK AT
DISTRIBUTION OF MODES ACROSS
THREE DATABASES THE WILD FACES
AND FACES FROM EXISTING
DATABASES HAVE BETTER SPREAD,
THE UNBIASED SCRAPE ON THE FAR
RIGHT EVERYBODY WAS RATING THOSE
FACES AS HAPPY OR NEUTRAL.
HERE I'M SHOWING THREE EXAMPLES
OF FACES RATED AS HAPPY, BY ALL
PARTICIPANTS, IT'S EASY TO SEE
WHY THAT'S THE CASE.
THE FACT IS THERE WASN'T THIS
MUCH AGREEMENT ACROSS
PARTICIPANTS FOR ALL IMAGES.
TO QUANTIFY FOR EVERY IMAGE
COMPUTED SCORE TO REFLECT
CONSISTENCY.
IF AN IMAGE WAS HAPPY BY ALL
PARTICIPANTS, SCORE IS 1.
IF IMAGE WAS MOSTLY CATEGORIZED
AS HAPPY BY SOME SUBJECTS, ALSO
AS SURPRISED, THAT IMAGE IS
SCORED 2.
SO ON AND SO FORTH.
HIGH SCORES INDICATE LESS
CONSISTENCY.
LOOKING AT DISTRIBUTION,
PARTICIPANTS WERE LESS
CONSISTENT WHEN RATING THE
WILDTYPE FACES.
I WANT TO DEMONSTRATE WHAT THIS
MEANS FOR US HERE.
WE HAVE THREE WILD FACES, ALL
RATED AS HAPPY BY MAJORITY OF
PARTICIPANTS.
THEY DIFFER IN CONSISTENCY, ALL
ON THE LEFT WERE HAPPY, MIDDLE
HAPPY BY 84% OF PARTICIPANTS,
OTHERS RATED IT AS SURPRISED,
NEUTRAL, OTHER.
FINALLY THE FACE ON THE RIGHT
WAS HAPPY BY 3 2%, 6 OTHERS USED
TO CATEGORIZE THIS FACE.
IN THE PAST, WE ONLY CONSIDERED
THE MODE RESPONSE AS BEING
IMPORTANT, ALL OTHER RESPONSES
CONSIDERED MISTAKES OR ERRORS
BUT WHAT THESE SCORES AND OTHER
SORT OF PROFILES ARE SHOWING OR
CONTEXTUALIZING IS REAL.
I THINK THIS IS SOMETHING WE
HAVE FAILED TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
IN THE PAST.
I HAVE SOME EXAMPLES OF ANGRY
FACES THAT DIFFER IN
CONSISTENCY, I ENJOY THE FACT
THIS SCALE GOES FROM ROAD RAGE
THROUGH TO DISAPPOINTED PARENT.
ONE THING YOU MIGHT NOTICE IS
MIDDLE FACE ISN'T HUMAN.
WE DID INCLUDE ANIMAL AND
ILLUSORY FACES BECAUSE WE WANTED
TO INCLUDE AS MUCH VARIETY AS
POSSIBLE.
INTERESTING SUBCATEGORY WERE
"OTHER."
PARTICIPANTS WERE GIVEN THE
OPTION TO SAY UNKNOWN, BY
COLLECTING "OTHER" THEY INDICATE
THEY COULD RECOGNIZE EMOTION,
JUST WASN'T ONE OF THE OPTIONS.
A LOT OF THESE LOOK LIKE THEY
ARE CONFUSED, MAYBE THAT'S
BECAUSE CONFUSION IS AN EMOTION
I RELATE TO.
MAYBE YOU SEE SOMETHING
DIFFERENT.
IMPORTANTLY FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
IN WILD FACES DATABASE RATED
SIGNIFICANTLY LESS INTENSE BUT
MORE AUTHENTIC THAN OTHER
DATABASES.
WE FOUND POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN INTENSITY AND
AUTHENTICITY.
A LOT OF THESE RESULTS ARE
INDICATING THE WILD FACES ARE
TAPPING INTO BEHAVIOR
DIFFERENTLY THAN FACES IN MORE
CONVENTIONAL STIMULUS DATABASES.
NEXT STEPS WILL BE TO LOOK AT
PERCEIVED SIMILARITY AS WELL AS
VISUAL PROPERTIES, WE CAN MARRY
VALENCE ON A CONTINUOUS SCALE,
AROUSAL IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT
BUT ONCE WE'VE CHARACTERIZED THE
CONTENT ON MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS
WE CAN INVESTIGATE HOW THE
LAYERS OF INFORMATION ARE ENCODE
AND RECOGNIZED BY BIOLOGICAL AND
ARTIFICIAL VISUAL SYSTEMS.
GOING BACK TO MY MAIN QUESTION
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TALK
WHAT DOES THIS REAL WORLD
COMPLEXITY AND FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS MEAN IN THE
RECEIVER'S BRAIN?
I'VE SHOWN EVIDENCE THE MACAQUE
VISUAL SYSTEM IS SENSITIVE, BUT
THIS DOES NOT APPEAR TO BE
FUNCTION OF THE CONVENTIONAL
FACE PATCH NETWORK.
THIS SENSITIVITY DOES NOT APPEAR
TO BE IN RESPONSE TO SIMPLE
VISUAL PROPERTIES LIKE LOCALIZED
REGIONS OF HIGH CONTRAST OR
STEREOTYPICAL FEATURES LIKE FEAR
GRINS.
THIS IS AN IMPORTANT POINT
BECAUSE IT SUGGESTS NEURAL
SENSITIVITY MIGHT BE DRIVEN BY
SOMETHING EMERGENT, CLOSER TO
SOCIOEMOTIONAL MEANING THAN PURE
VISUAL CONTENT AND SPEAKS TO THE
POTENTIAL BENEFIT OF USING MORE
ECOLOGICALLY VALID STIMULI.
IT IS HARD TO AVOID SELECTION
BIASES WHILE WORKING WITH
NON-HUMAN PRIMATES, FOR THAT
REASON WE'RE SETTING UP
EXPERIMENTS TO TEST HUMAN
PARTICIPANTS SO WE CAN
CHARACTERIZE RECOGNIZABLE
INFORMATION AVAILABLE IN
NATURALISTIC FACE STIMULI.
THIS APPROACH PAVES THE WAY TO
UNDERSTAND HOW SOCIAL
INTELLIGENCE EMERGES AND CHANGES
IN THE HUMAN LIFESPAN.
PUTTING THIS TALK TOGETHER MADE
ME THINK ABOUT LESLIE AND HER
BELIEF IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND
NEURAL MECHANISMS SUPPORT HUMAN
COGNITION RESEARCH NEEDS TO
ITERATE BETWEEN HUMAN AND
NON-HUMAN PRIMATES.
IT IS A DIFFICULT CHOICE TO
DECIDE TO RUN A GENUINE
CROSS-SPECIES LAB BECAUSE THERE
ARE THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGIC
DIVISIONS BETWEEN RESEARCHERS
THAT CAN BE DIFFICULT TO
RECONCILE.
IF YOU CHOOSE TO WALK IN BOTH
WORLDS YOU RISK DOING RESEARCH
THAT CAN BE IGNORED BY BOTH
SIDES.
LESLIE SHOWED US THROUGH EXAMPLE
NO MATTER WHO YOU ARE, WHERE YOU
COME FROM, AND KNOW MATTER HOW
TALL YOU ARE, THROUGH EXPERTISE,
SKILL, AND MOXIE YOU CAN USE THE
POWERS CROSS-SPECIES APPROACH TO
CHALLENGE STATUS QUO AND RESHAPE
NORTHERLY FOUNDATIONS OF
COGNITION.
THANK YOU.
[APPLAUSE]
>> TIME FOR ONE QUESTION.
>> LOVELY TALK.
I'M CURIOUS WITH THESE NEW
DATABASES HAVE WE BEEN
COLLECTING DATA ON PERCEIVED
GENDER AND RACE, IF THAT
SOMETIMES EXPLAINS VARIABILITY
OR EXCUSE IN WHAT PEOPLE ARE
RESPONDING TO EMOTIONALLY?
>> NOT YET BUT ABSOLUTELY.
COMPARING THE STABLE AND
TRANSIENT INFORMATION EVEN IN
STATIC IMAGES IS REALLY
IMPORTANT AND WILL PROVIDE
REALLY INTERESTING CLUES WHAT'S
GOING ON.
OUR STRATEGY INITIALLY WILL BE
JUST TO LOOK FOR PERCEIVED
SIMILARITY AND TRY AND SORT OF
HAVE A FEEL FOR THE DATA WHEN
WE'RE NOT PROBING PEOPLE FOR
PARTICULAR CATEGORIZATION AND
SEE IF WE CAN GET AT THAT
NATURALLY WITHOUT HAVING TO ASK
ABOUT SOMETHING LIKE GENDER BUT
YES, YOU'RE RIGHT.
GOOD POINT.
>> THIS IS NOT A QUESTION FOR
YOU.
>> OKAY.
>> I'M RESPONSIBLE FOR
CONVEYING.
THIS IS FROM ONE OF LESLIE'S
FIRST POSTDOCS, AND THEY WROTE
THIS NOTE THAT I THINK IT'S NICE
TO READ.
AS ONE OF THE LESLIE'S POSTDOCS,
I WANT TO SAY A FEW WORDS ABOUT
HER.
WHEN I ARRIVED AT BETHESDA
COMING FROM FRANCE WITH MY WIFE
LESLIE PICKED US UP FROM THE
AIRPORT, OFFERED US AN AFTERNOON
SNACK AT HER HOME, TOOK US TO
OUR APARTMENT, YES, INDEED HAD
ALREADY BOOKED AN APARTMENT FOR
US WHICH SHE HAD FURNISHED FROM
NIH RECYCLED FURNITURE, IT WAS A
UNIQUE WAY FOR WELCOMING US,
THAT WAS LESLIE AS I WAS GOING
TO KNOW HER AND WORKED WITH HER
THREE EXCELLENT YEARS, EXCELLENT
MENTOR, I LEARNED A LOT AND I
MISS HER.
I THOUGHT THIS WOULD BE A NICE
END.
>> BEAUTIFUL.
[APPLAUSE]
>> JUST QUICK, SEEMS LIKE
THERE'S ALMOST LIKE A LATENT
DIMENSION IN THE CATEGORIZATION
OF FACES FOR THE INCONSISTENT
ONES, IF YOU LOOKED AT OVERLAP
BETWEEN EMOTIONS, THERE'S A
SPACE WITH SOME EMOTIONS MORE
CLOSELY TOGETHER, IF YOU'RE
FINDING ANYTHING LIKE THIS.
>> I MEAN, I LOOKED AT SORT OF
WHAT KINDS OF EXPRESSIONS WERE
IN THE MORE CONTEXT BASED
CONDITION, THERE'S A LOT OF LIP
SMACKS AND FEAR GRINS, SOME
THINGS CONSISTENT WITH WHAT WERE
IN THE OTHER CONDITION AND
OTHERS THAT WERE NOT.
IT SEEMED MORE VARIABLE THAN
WHAT WE WERE LOOKING AT, IN
TERMS OF RAW FEATURES.
IN TERMS OF SOCIAL CATEGORIES OR
VIEWPOINT TURNS OR, YOU KNOW,
EXACTLY OCCLUSIONS, THAT MIGHT
BE IMPORTANT FOR THESE VISUAL
AREAS, IT'S HARD TO SAY WHETHER
THEY WERE EQUAL ACROSS BOTH
CONDITIONS THAT WE'RE COMPARING
IN CONTRASTS, THAT'S SOMETHING
WE NEED TO SPEND MORE TIME
PARSING.
EXCELLENT POINT.
>> CAROL SAYS LOVELY TALK.
>> THANK YOU.
>> THANK YOU, JESS, FOR WRAPPING
US UP.
WE HAVE ONE LAST THING TO DO.
CLOSING REMARKS BY CHRIS BAKER
ON ZOOM.
OVER TO YOU, CHRIS.
>> OKAY.
WE'VE HAD TWO FANTASTIC DAYS,
I'M SURE YOU ARE DIEING TO GET
TO THE RECEPTION AND MORE FOOD.
I'LL KEEP THE REMARKS BRIEF.
HANDS DOWN, IT'S CLEAR THIS IS A
WONDERFUL EVENT.
I LOOK AT THE SPEAKERS, SO
WONDERFUL, TO BRING THIS GROUP
OF PEOPLE TOGETHER, PLUS ALL THE
PEOPLE IN THE AUDITORIUM, ALL
THE PEOPLE WHO WATCHED ONLINE.
ON TOP OF THAT, WE HAD ALL THESE
WONDERFUL VIDEOS PEOPLE SENT IN,
ALL THE SCIENTIFIC CONTENT
PEOPLE PRESENTED.
I THANK EVERYBODY ABLE TO COME,
ABLE TO WATCH ONLINE FOR MAKING
THIS A FANTASTIC EVENT.
OVER THE PAST TWO DAYS, WE'VE
HEARD ABOUT ALL PHASES OF
LESLIE'S CAREER FROM Ph.D.
WITH TED, POSTDOCTORAL WORK,
EARLY DAYS, THIS SYMPOSIUM MADE
CLEAR TO ME LESLIE WAS A PIONEER
WHOSE INFLUENCE HAS BEEN
ENORMOUS IN THE FIELD.
WE LOST A GIANT, ONE WHOSE
IMPACT WILL BE FELT FOR MANY
YEARS.
THIS WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN
POSSIBLE WITHOUT INVOLVEMENT OF
MANY PEOPLE.
I WANT TO GO THROUGH AND THANK
SOME PEOPLE INVOLVED IN PUTTING
THIS TOGETHER.
THIS INCLUDES LOTS OF GROUPS,
NIMH, OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC
DIRECTOR, PEOPLE HEAVILY
INVOLVED PROVIDING SUPPORT FOR
THIS SYMPOSIUM, SUSAN AND
MARILYN, PEOPLE IN THE OFFICE OF
DIRECTOR, OFFICE OF FELLOWSHIP
TRAINING, IN PARTICULAR THANK
JEN CLARK FOR HELP WITH COFFEE
BREAKS, OFFICE OF CLINICAL
DIRECTOR WITH ACCESS TO HELP OUT
WITH COFFEE BREAKS.
NIH MANAGEMENT FOR AUDIO/VISUAL
AND MULTIPLE SPEAKERS AND ZOOM,
THEY MADE EVERYTHING SEAMLESS.
TRAVEL FOR THE SPEAKERS, AND NIH
SECURITY FOR FACILITATING
GETTING SPEAKERS ON CAMPUS.
MULTIPLE CURRENT MEMBERS FOR
TIME IN HELPING OUT, YOU
INTERACTED WITH THEM.
IN PARTICULAR JOHN WHO HELPED
MAKE SURE THE SNACKS IN COFFEE
BREAKS, MIRIAM WHO MONITORED
QUESTIONS, ROHINI WHO PUT
TOGETHER THE SLIDE SLOW FOR THE
RECEPTION THAT YOU'LL SEE.
FAES PROVIDING REFRESHMENTS.
FINALLY THANK YOU FOR THE
PICTURES, AND TAKING PICTURES
DURING THE SYMPOSIUM, THE ONE I
HIGHLIGHTED EARLIER ON THE
SCREEN.
WE HOPE TO POST MANY OF THESE
PICTURES LATER.
THERE WERE MANY PEOPLE WHO ALSO
SENT US PICTURES AHEAD OF TIME
OF LESLIE, PLAYING AT THE
RECEPTION.
FINALLY, ONE PERSON WHO DESERVES
THANKS, THEY AREN'T MENTIONED ON
THE SLIDE BECAUSE THEY MADE THIS
SLIDE.
THEY MADE THIS SLIDE BECAUSE
THEY SWEATED OVER EVERY DETAIL
OF THE SYMPOSIUM ALL OF THE WAY
THROUGH.
WITHOUT THEM NONE OF THIS WOULD
HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE.
THAT PERSON IS OF COURSE SHRUDI,
FIVE MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZING
THE ECONOMY, MYSELF, PETER, ELY,
ALEX, SHRUDI BUT HER EFFORTS
DWARFED US.
I HOPE SHE WILL STAND UP WHILE I
SAY A FEW THINGS ABOUT HER.
YOU HEARD FROM HER EARLIER.
SHE JOINED THE LBC 2002, MUCH
LONGER OF THAT I'VE BEEN HERE,
WORKED CLOSELY WITH LESLIE,
INVOLVED IN MOST OF THE PROJECTS
GOING ON IN THE LAB DURING THAT
TIME, AND LESLIE HAD COMPLETE
TRUST IN HER.
HER UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENCE AND
BUREAUCRACY AT NIH MADE HER THE
FIRST PERSON THAT PEOPLE TURNED
TO FOR ASSISTANCE, NO DOUBT SHE
HELPED LESLIE'S SECTION RUN
SMOOTHLY, BUT ALSO THE ENTIRE
LBC.
I KNOW SHE WAS VERY SPECIAL TO
LESLIE AND IN THE TIME I'VE BEEN
WORKING WITH SHRUDI IT'S EASY TO
SEE WHY.
SHRUDI, YOU'VE MADE THIS A
WONDERFULLY FITTING TRIBUTE TO
LESS IF I.
A ROUND OF APPLAUSE FOR
EVERYONE, BUT ESPECIALLY SHRUDI.
WITH THAT, I WILL RELEASE YOU TO
GO TO THE RECEPTION.