1 00:00:07,107 --> 00:00:10,910 I haven't mentioned too -- mentioned too much about women 2 00:00:10,910 --> 00:00:15,849 because there weren't many women who were doing science in the old day. 3 00:00:15,849 --> 00:00:20,954 But let me mention a few superstars who lived from the 1800s on. 4 00:00:20,954 --> 00:00:23,056 Florence Nightingale is the first. 5 00:00:23,056 --> 00:00:29,129 She was a great mathematician and her parents really told her not to go into math 6 00:00:29,129 --> 00:00:33,333 because they didn't think it was a ladylike thing to do. 7 00:00:33,767 --> 00:00:38,238 And so, they told her she had to go into nursing. 8 00:00:38,238 --> 00:00:43,943 But she was this mathematician and she used this skill in the Crimean War. 9 00:00:43,943 --> 00:00:48,415 She showed that overcrowded hospitals -- she worked out the mathematics 10 00:00:48,415 --> 00:00:52,085 for how crowding would lead to transmission of infection. 11 00:00:52,085 --> 00:00:57,390 And she said you had a good ventilation and spread the beds apart. 12 00:00:57,390 --> 00:01:01,461 In doing that, she reduced the intrahospital infection rate dramatically. 13 00:01:03,463 --> 00:01:06,800 Marie Curie is -- has an amazing story. 14 00:01:06,800 --> 00:01:08,068 She discovered radium. 15 00:01:08,068 --> 00:01:12,672 She realized that radioactivity is an intrinsic atomic property of matter. 16 00:01:12,672 --> 00:01:16,843 You may not know she pioneered a mobile x-ray unit 17 00:01:16,843 --> 00:01:23,550 for the French Army in World War I and founded a radiologic school for nurses. 18 00:01:23,550 --> 00:01:29,823 With her husband, she was awarded half the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 19 00:01:29,823 --> 00:01:34,027 for their study into the spontaneous radiation discovered by Becquerel, 20 00:01:34,027 --> 00:01:37,797 who was awarded the other half of the Prize. 21 00:01:38,064 --> 00:01:43,236 Then she won a second Nobel Prize in 1911 22 00:01:43,236 --> 00:01:49,509 -- her husband had died -- for her work in radioactivity. 23 00:01:49,509 --> 00:01:55,815 And her daughter, Irene Joliot-Curie, was also awarded a Nobel Prize 24 00:01:55,815 --> 00:02:02,122 for work with her husband on the discovery of artificial radioactivity. 25 00:02:02,122 --> 00:02:08,995 So, this is the first example of a parent/child Nobel laureates, whatever 26 00:02:08,995 --> 00:02:10,430 that's worth. 27 00:02:10,430 --> 00:02:15,869 And then, Rosalyn Yalow, who was a medical physicist, 28 00:02:15,869 --> 00:02:20,440 collaborated with Solomon Berson and invented the radioimmunoassay. 29 00:02:20,440 --> 00:02:27,847 And Berson died, so he didn't win the Nobel Prize, but Rosalyn Yalow did in 1977. 30 00:02:27,847 --> 00:02:35,288 She was the first female and first nuclear physicist to win the Lasker Award, as well. 31 00:02:35,288 --> 00:02:43,129 And Janet Rowley, who died just a few years ago, was an American geneticist in the 1970s. 32 00:02:43,129 --> 00:02:45,298 She was the first scientist 33 00:02:45,298 --> 00:02:50,537 to identify chromosomal translocation as the cause of leukemia and other cancers. 34 00:02:50,570 --> 00:02:52,772 She discovered the Philadelphia chromosome. 35 00:02:52,772 --> 00:02:56,276 And she won the National Medal of Science, 36 00:02:56,276 --> 00:03:01,114 the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Lasker Award. 37 00:03:01,114 --> 00:03:03,316 So, with that background, 38 00:03:03,316 --> 00:03:08,121 now let me bring you some stories about the pharmaceutical industry. 39 00:03:08,121 --> 00:03:12,525 And I would like to start that with mentioned Claude 40 00:03:12,525 --> 00:03:16,930 Bernard, who was French, and lived from 1813 to 1878. 41 00:03:16,930 --> 00:03:22,202 And among his accomplishments, he recognized the pancreas was important in digestion; 42 00:03:22,569 --> 00:03:26,739 he described the glycogenic function of the liver; 43 00:03:26,739 --> 00:03:31,945 he described the vasomotor system, the vasodilator and vasoconstrictor nerves; 44 00:03:31,945 --> 00:03:37,150 and he discovered curare and its application in medicine. 45 00:03:37,150 --> 00:03:42,855 Rudolph Virchow, who lived from 1821 to 1902, was Polish. 46 00:03:42,855 --> 00:03:50,663 He defined leukemia and he wrote, "Omnis cellula e cellula" -- "Every cell originates 47 00:03:50,663 --> 00:03:56,903 from another cell." So, he defined stem cells, probably the first person. 48 00:03:57,403 --> 00:04:02,208 He also defined pulmonary emboli as related to thrombosis and embolism. 49 00:04:02,208 --> 00:04:08,214 And one of my heroes, historically, is Pasteur, who lived from 1822 to 1895. 50 00:04:08,214 --> 00:04:14,587 If you look carefully at this picture, you'll note that his right arm is sort of 51 00:04:14,587 --> 00:04:15,788 just hanging loose. 52 00:04:15,788 --> 00:04:22,996 And that was because, at a young age, he had a stroke and he couldn't use his right 53 00:04:22,996 --> 00:04:28,601 arm. And, despite that, was able to make his phenomenal discoveries, 54 00:04:28,601 --> 00:04:33,973 including the germ basis of fermentation, germ theory of infectious diseases. 55 00:04:33,973 --> 00:04:37,844 He discovered staphylococci as the cause of boils. 56 00:04:37,844 --> 00:04:39,779 He described streptococcus pyogenes 57 00:04:39,779 --> 00:04:44,651 as a cause of puerperal sepsis, the disease Semmelweis studied. 58 00:04:44,651 --> 00:04:51,457 He made the first vaccine for anthrax and, of course, the vaccine for rabies. 59 00:04:53,793 --> 00:04:56,829 Koch, who lived in a similar 60 00:04:56,829 --> 00:05:01,367 era, from 1843 to 1910, developed the Petri dish 61 00:05:01,367 --> 00:05:06,973 and the use of blood agar pour plates to culture bacteria. 62 00:05:06,973 --> 00:05:13,546 He was the first to describe anthrax infection before Pasteur made the vaccine. 63 00:05:13,546 --> 00:05:19,118 He described and cultured tuberculosis, the first person to do that. 64 00:05:19,118 --> 00:05:22,689 And he developed a TB skin test. 65 00:05:22,689 --> 00:05:24,691 He described waterborne epidemics. 66 00:05:24,691 --> 00:05:26,826 He made his Koch's postulates 67 00:05:26,826 --> 00:05:32,365 and, in 1905, was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on tuberculosis. 68 00:05:32,365 --> 00:05:35,368 And if you look in his book 69 00:05:35,368 --> 00:05:41,341 -- and I have a copy of his book -- these are all hand-drawings. 70 00:05:41,341 --> 00:05:45,178 Here, he was -- drew the anthrax bacillus. 71 00:05:45,178 --> 00:05:50,283 Behring, who lived in Germany from 1854 to 1917, discovered antibodies 72 00:05:50,283 --> 00:05:54,120 -- first person to describe them -- for diphtheria. 73 00:05:54,120 --> 00:05:59,659 And he was the first to use passive immunization to treat a person 74 00:05:59,659 --> 00:06:01,661 who had been exposed. 75 00:06:01,661 --> 00:06:05,998 And he won the Nobel Prize in 1901. 76 00:06:07,100 --> 00:06:08,167 Paul Ehrlich, 77 00:06:08,167 --> 00:06:13,072 who was Polish, described eosinophils as a medical student. 78 00:06:13,072 --> 00:06:18,478 He described the complement pathway and the humoral immunity system. 79 00:06:18,478 --> 00:06:25,551 But he also developed the first antibiotic, in this case, to treat syphilis. 80 00:06:25,551 --> 00:06:32,592 And he worked with his technician, Sahachiro Hata, and they developed what Hoechst 81 00:06:32,592 --> 00:06:39,632 called Salvarsan, which was an arsenobenzene, which had 32 percent and was toxic. 82 00:06:40,366 --> 00:06:46,339 And, later, they developed a compound that was less toxic, called Compound 914. 83 00:06:46,339 --> 00:06:49,575 And Ehrlich said, "We need magic bullets. 84 00:06:49,575 --> 00:06:52,345 We must search for magic bullets. 85 00:06:52,345 --> 00:06:57,417 We must strike the parasites, and the parasites only, if possible. 86 00:06:57,417 --> 00:07:02,922 And to do this, we must learn to aim with chemical substances." 87 00:07:02,922 --> 00:07:08,227 So, this was the first description of the need for antibiotics. 88 00:07:08,227 --> 00:07:14,434 And, of course, Fleming, who in 1928, while working on influenza virus, observed 89 00:07:14,434 --> 00:07:19,972 mold on a staph culture plate with a bacteria-free circle around it. 90 00:07:20,406 --> 00:07:25,211 Now, most people probably would have just thrown it out, 91 00:07:25,211 --> 00:07:30,483 but he asked why was there no bacteria around this mold, 92 00:07:30,483 --> 00:07:35,988 and he discovered penicillin, and won the Nobel Prize in 1945. 93 00:07:35,988 --> 00:07:43,463 Insulin is an interesting story and it gets to a little bit about scientific ethics. 94 00:07:43,463 --> 00:07:49,202 In the summer of 1928, '21, material extracted from islets of Langerhans, 95 00:07:49,202 --> 00:07:55,007 called insulin from the Latin for island, was given to diabetic dogs, 96 00:07:55,007 --> 00:08:01,280 and the result was that abnormally high blood sugar levels were lowered. 97 00:08:01,280 --> 00:08:02,849 Within six weeks, 98 00:08:05,818 --> 00:08:10,122 Banting and Best -- Banting was a junior scientist 99 00:08:10,122 --> 00:08:14,927 and Best was a technician -- they had purified insulin 100 00:08:14,927 --> 00:08:20,666 and gave it to a 14-year-old boy who was dying of diabetes. 101 00:08:20,666 --> 00:08:24,036 And they, basically, saved this kid's life. 102 00:08:25,004 --> 00:08:31,244 Their boss -- or their paper was published in 1922, but their boss, 103 00:08:31,244 --> 00:08:38,918 in 1923, shared -- and his name was Macleod -- shared the Nobel Prize with Banting. 104 00:08:38,918 --> 00:08:45,157 And Macleod was away during the whole time that this study was done. 105 00:08:45,157 --> 00:08:47,727 He was on vacation, his summer vacation. 106 00:08:47,727 --> 00:08:52,832 But it was in his lab, so Macleod won the Nobel Prize with Banting. 107 00:08:52,832 --> 00:08:55,001 And Best, who was the technician, 108 00:08:55,001 --> 00:08:59,572 didn't get anything because technicians didn't win Nobel Prizes in those days. 109 00:08:59,572 --> 00:09:04,110 The good news is that Macleod and Banting shared all their money 110 00:09:04,110 --> 00:09:07,747 with the folks in the lab who did the work. 111 00:09:08,247 --> 00:09:12,618 But the credit from the Nobel committee went to Banting and Macleod. 112 00:09:12,618 --> 00:09:18,457 And it was very sad that Best didn't receive the Nobel Prize, which he clearly deserved. 113 00:09:20,560 --> 00:09:21,127 Polio. 114 00:09:21,127 --> 00:09:27,700 So, you've all heard of Salk and Sabin, but the Nobel Prize 115 00:09:27,700 --> 00:09:33,172 went to Enders, Weller, and Robbins, who developed the technique 116 00:09:33,172 --> 00:09:39,211 for culturing the polio virus, which eventually led to the vaccine. 117 00:09:39,211 --> 00:09:44,684 And the Salk vaccine was the first and it used 118 00:09:44,684 --> 00:09:50,156 an inactivated polio virus that was given to subjects. 119 00:09:50,156 --> 00:09:57,830 And there was a serious bad incident with the development of this vaccine. 120 00:09:58,030 --> 00:10:01,500 There was a lab manufacturing error by Cutter. 121 00:10:01,500 --> 00:10:06,672 When they were inactivating the virus, they extrapolated rather than getting data 122 00:10:06,672 --> 00:10:11,410 to the critical dose needed, minimal dose to inactivate the virus. 123 00:10:11,410 --> 00:10:16,148 And they actually gave polio, I think, to the first thousand 124 00:10:16,148 --> 00:10:19,185 or so people who received the vaccine. 125 00:10:19,185 --> 00:10:23,923 But then, that was fixed and then the vaccine was developed. 126 00:10:24,590 --> 00:10:31,430 But Sabin's vaccine is probably a better vaccine because it's a live virus vaccine. 127 00:10:31,430 --> 00:10:37,269 And you get immunity if you -- one child in a classroom 128 00:10:37,269 --> 00:10:41,674 gets this vaccine, the whole classroom will get it. 129 00:10:41,674 --> 00:10:45,111 So, it's sort of a perfect vaccine. 130 00:10:45,111 --> 00:10:50,483 And Sabin worked with Russian colleagues to prevent [sic] this vaccine 131 00:10:50,483 --> 00:10:55,855 in the late 1950s and you know that it worked marvelously.