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I'M ALLEN SCHECTER, AND I'M HERE

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TO WELCOME YOU TO THIS LECTURE 

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IN THE NIH HISTORY OF 

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BIOMEDICINE SERIES BY PROFESSOR 

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ERLING NORRBY OF THE WORLD 

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SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

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THE LECTURE IS BEING SPONSORED 

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BY THE OFFICE OF NIH HISTORY AND

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THE STETMAN MUSEUM OF MEDICAL 

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RESEARCH.

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AND WE ARE PLEASED THAT DR. KIM 

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PELLAS HAS BEEN JUST BEEN 

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APPOINTED THE NIH HISTORIAN AND 

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SHE AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE 

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STAFF OF THE OFFICE OF NIH 

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HISTORY ARE DELIGHTED THAT THE 

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BIOMEDICAL HISTORY LECTURE 

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SERIES WILL CONTINUE WITH NEW 

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SPEAKERS STARTING LATER IN THE 

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SPRING.

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BUT RIGHT NOW, I'D LIKE TO 

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INTRODUCE STEVE CHANIK THE 

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DIRECTOR OF THE CANCER 

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EPIDEMIOLOGY GENETICS TO 

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INTRODUCE OUR SPEAKER, DR. 

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NORRBY.

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STEVE.

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>> THANK YOU.

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INDEED, IT'S A GREAT PLEASURE TO

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BE HERE AND TO BE WELCOMING A 

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DEAR FRIEND, ERLING NORRBY.

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I'VE KNOWN ERLING NORRBY FOR 

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MANY YEARS.

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GOING BACK TO THE 1960S HERE AT 

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NIH, WHERE I'VE BEEN SINCE 1958,

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IN ONE FORM OR ANOTHER.

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BUT ONLY SINCE 1991 IN ANY 

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SERIOUS SCIENTIFIC CAPACITY.

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BUT ERLING HAS BEEN A DEAR 

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FRIEND OF THE NIH AND 

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PARTICULARLY MY FAMILY AND OUR 

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FAMILIES HAVE VISITED EACH OTHER

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AND HAD WONDERFUL TIMES OVER THE

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MANY YEARS.

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SO IT'S REALLY A PERSONAL AS 

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WELL PROFESSIONAL PLEASURE TO 

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WELCOME SUCH A DISTINGUISHED 

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SPEAKER.

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ERLING HAS AN MD PH.D. AND HE'S 

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A PROFESSOR OF VIROLOGY CHAIRMAN

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AT THE INSTITUTE FOR SOME 

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25 YEARS AT THE KAROLINSKA 

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INSTITUTES.

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AND HE'S AN EXPERT IN ADDENO 

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VIRUS AND ASPECTS OF VIROLOGY 

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WHICH BROUGHT HIM TO MY PARENTS'

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LIVING ROOM.

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HE SERVES AS THE DEAN OF FACULTY

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AT THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE FOR 

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SIX YEARS, AND HE'S BEEN VERY 

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INVOLVED IN THE WORK ON THE 

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NOBEL PRIZES IN PHYSIOLOGY AND 

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MEDICINE FOR 20 YEARS.

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HE BECAME THE PERMANENT 

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SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH 

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR A NUMBER

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OF YEARS, AND AT THAT TIME HIS 

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OVERRIDING RESPONSIBILITY WAS 

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FOR OVERSEEING THE PRIZES IN 

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PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

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AND FROM THERE, HE'S REALLY BEEN

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AN IMPORTANT MEMBER OF THE NOBEL

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FOUNDATION, AND HE'S AT THE 

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CENTER FOR THE HISTORY OF 

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SCIENCE AT THE ACADEMY.

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WHAT HE DOES IS REALLY QUITE 

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REMARKABLE.

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50 YEARS, ALMOST TO THE DAY, 

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SINCE THE AWARDING OF THE 

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PRIZES, HE'S ABLE TO GO INTO THE

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VAULT OF THE NOBEL SYSTEM AND 

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LOOK AT THE CORRESPONDENCE AND 

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THE DISCUSSIONS AS TO HOW AND 

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WHY PRIZES WERE AWARDED OR NOT 

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AWARDED TO INDIVIDUALS.

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SO HE HAS A REMARKABLE SENSE OF 

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THE HISTORY OF THE HIGH, SORT OF

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THE HIGH MARKS OF BIOMEDICAL 

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RESEARCH.

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AND SO HE'S WRITTEN SOME SIX 

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BOOKS.

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HIS MOST RECENT ONE WILL SHOW 

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PICTURES IN A LITTLE BIT, I'M 

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SURE, AND I BELIEVE ALL SIX ARE 

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IN THE FAS BOOKSTORE.

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AND THEY ARE EXTRAORDINARILY 

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WELL-WRITTEN, SCIENTIFICALLY 

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VERY INSIGHTFUL, BUT FILLED WITH

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AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE 

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PERSONALITIES AND THE INSIGHTS 

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INTO THE PEOPLE.

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NOT ONLY WHO WON THE AWARDS, BUT

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WHO ALSO WERE COLLABORATORS OR 

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COMPETITORS IN UNDERSTANDING HOW

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SCIENCE REALLY EVOLVES.

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SO, I THINK IF THERE'S SOMETHING

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AMONG THE MANY EXPERTISES THAT 

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ERLING HAS IS REALLY 

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UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIOLOGY AND 

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PSYCHOLOGY OF HOW WHAT WAY GREAT

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SCIENCE ADVANCES AND WHAT 

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METASTASIS AND THE INTERACTIONS 

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AND THE KINDS OF QUESTIONS.

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SO IT'S REALLY A GREAT PLEASURE 

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TO WELCOME HIM.

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HE IS THE ROYAL SWEDISH COURT 

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HE'S THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN IN 

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WAITING, WHICH IS A REMARKABLE 

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TITLE.

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MY KIDS AND GRANDKIDS THINK 

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THAT'S THE COOLEST THING THEY'VE

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EVER SEEN WHEN THEY CAME OVER 

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THIS WEEKEND.

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THEY WERE JUST THRILLED TO MEET 

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A LORD CHAMBERLAIN IN WAITING.

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AND ON A PERSONAL NOTE, IT'S 

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SUCH A PLEASURE TO SEE YOU, 

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ERLING, AND TO WELCOME YOU TO 

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THE NIH COMMUNITY ONCE AGAIN.

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AND WE LOOK FORWARD TO YOUR 

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LECTURE.

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SO, PLEASE, COME TO THE PODIUM 

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AND IT WILL BE A PLEASURE TO 

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HEAR YOU SPEAK.

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THANK YOU.

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>> THANK YOU SO MUCH,
STEVE, 

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FOR THAT INTRODUCTION.

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AND IT'S A GREAT PLEASURE TO BE 

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BACK AND TO LECTURE HERE AT NIH.

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AFTER A NUMBER OF YEARS.

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WHEN IN FACT I HAVEN'T BEEN ON 

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SITE VISITOR HERE AT THE NIH.

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BUT AS WAS MENTIONED BY STEVE, I

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STARTED TO INTERACT WITH NIH IN 

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THE 1960S.

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SO IT'S BEEN A LONG JOURNEY.

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AND ALLOWED DEVELOPMENT OF A 

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NUMBER OF FRIENDSHIPS AND A 

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UNIQUE ONE WITH STEVE'S FATHER, 

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BOB CHANNOC, ONE OF THE 

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LEGENDARY FIGURES IN VIROLOGY.

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AND WE'VE HAD SOME REMARKABLE, 

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NOT ONLY PROFESSIONAL, BUT ALSO 

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THE PRIVATE INTERACTION.

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AND WHATEVER I PASSED BY 

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BETHESDA I WAS CHANGING -- 

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STAYING IN THE HOME AND IT WAS 

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INTENSE ACTIVITIES NOT ONLY 

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TALKING SCIENCE BUT A LOT ABOUT 

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MUSIC AND SO FORTH.

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BUT THAT'S NOT WHAT I'M GOING TO

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TALK TO YOU ABOUT TODAY, BUT 

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ABOUT THE MORE RECENT 

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DEVELOPMENTS.

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SO I'VE HAD THIS OPPORTUNITY 

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WHEN I TURNED 60 TO CHANGE MY 

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PROFESSION AND LEAVE THE CHAIR 

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AT THE KAROLINSKA INSTITUTES 

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AFTER 25 YEARS AND TO BECOME THE

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PERMANENT SECRETARY, WHICH 

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ACTUALLY IS QUITE A NICE TITLE 

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BECAUSE IF I INTRODUCE YOU 

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TODAY, I AM A FORMER PERMANENT 

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SECRETARY.

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KIND OF BUILT IN CONTRADICTION.

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SO WHAT DO YOU DO AS A FORMER 

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PERMANENT SECRETARY?

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WELL, THERE'S A TENDENCY OF 

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COMING TO MATURITY TO LOOK AT 

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HISTORY AND TO SEE WHAT YOU CAN 

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LEARN AND USING THAT 

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PERSPECTIVE.

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AND AS WAS MENTIONED, I'VE BEEN 

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HEAVILY INVOLVED IN WORKING ON 

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NOBEL PRIZES.

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AND I KNEW WHAT A TREASURED 

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MATERIAL WE HAVE IN OUR 

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ARCHIVES.

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AND THEREFORE IT TURNED OUT I 

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GOT INVOLVED IN WRITING ABOUT 

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NOBEL PRIZES WITH CONSIDERATION 

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TAKEN TO THE 50-YEAR SECRECY.

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AGAIN, IF YOU'RE GOING TO CHOOSE

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A CHALLENGE WHEN YOU CAME INTO 

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THE AGE OF RETIREMENT, NOTHING 

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COULD BE BETTER BECAUSE EACH 

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YEAR NEW ARCHIVES ARE BEING 

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EXPOSED AND NEW ARCHIVES.

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SO YOU CAN KEEP GOING UNTIL YOU 

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HIT THAT WALL.

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AND IT'S BEEN A GREAT LEARNING 

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EXPERIENCE.

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THE FIRST BOOK I WROTE, AND I'LL

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SHOW THAT BRIEFLY TO YOU, WAS IN

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2010.

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AND THAT'S MORE OF A GENERAL 

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BOOK ABOUT HOW THE SYSTEM WORKS.

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BUT ALSO SOME SELECTED NOBEL 

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PRIZES THAT INVOLVED THEMES THAT

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I WAS WELL FAMILIARIZED, THE 

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YELLOW FEVER VACCINE OR THE 

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PROPAGATION OF POLIO VIRUS IN 

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TISSUE CULTURES AND SO FORTH.

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BUT ALSO EARLY ON I WAS 

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INTERESTED IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY.

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AND I WROTE A CHAPTER IN THAT 

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BOOK ONLY PARTLY UTILIZING 

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ARCHIVES ABOUT THE DEVELOPMENT 

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OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, 

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DRAMAMIN5X.

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AND THE THEME IS NOBEL PRIZE AND

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THE EMERGING GENE CONCEPT.

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THERE ARE MANY STEPS ALONG THIS 

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ROAD.

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AND IT ALL STARTS WAY BACK IN 

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BERNOL, IN THE EAST PART OF 

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CZECH TODAY AND BURMA.

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AND HERE'S MENDEL AND YOU CAN 

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SEE HE'S BORN IN 1822.

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SO LAST YEAR THERE WAS A 200 

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CELEBRATION OF HIS BIRTH, AND I 

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HAVE HAD THE PLEASURE OF 

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VISITING BURNEA AND GO TO THE 

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PLACE AND GO TO SEE THE EARLY 

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EXPERIMENT TO MODERN DAY DNA 

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SEQUENCING MACHINES IN ONE OF 

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THE SAME PLACES, HIGHLIGHTING 

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WHAT A DYNAMIC DEVELOPMENT.

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ONE CAN SAY A LOT ABOUT HIS 

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LIFE, BUT THAT WAS A BIT OF A 

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LONER, WANTED TO BE A TEACHER, 

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WAS VERY SUCCESSFUL IN THAT, 

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THEN ENROLLED IN AUGUSTINIAN 

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ORDERS OF MONKS AND MADE A 

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CAREER THERE AND THAT WAS A 

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RATHER AUSTERE AND SIMPLIFIED 

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LIFE, BUT IT ALSO HAD 

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OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTELLECTUAL 

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ENDEAVORS.

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FANTASTIC LIBRARIES I'VE SEEN 

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THAT ON MY OWN AND HE HAD HIS 

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GARDENS WHERE HE COULD START TO 

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STUDY WHAT LATER ON BECAME 

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GENETICS.

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HE WAS INTERESTED IN CROSSING 

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PLANTS OF PEAS AND OTHER PLANTS 

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AND SOME REASON HE SAW THERE WAS

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A PATTERN BY WHICH THINGS ARE 

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INHERITED FROM ONE GENERATION TO

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ANOTHER.

261
00:09:44,080 --> 00:09:45,880
THINGS THAT WERE SO DOMINANT AND

262
00:09:45,880 --> 00:09:47,680
OTHERS THAT WERE MORE RECESSSIVE

263
00:09:47,680 --> 00:09:48,520
ALTHOUGH THOSE TERMS WEREN'T 

264
00:09:48,520 --> 00:09:49,680
USED IN THOSE DAYS.

265
00:09:49,680 --> 00:09:55,800
SO HE WROTE JUST A FEW PAPERS ON

266
00:09:55,800 --> 00:09:57,800
THIS AND HE GOT INVOLVED IN 

267
00:09:57,800 --> 00:09:59,920
OTHER NATURAL SCIENCE WORK.

268
00:09:59,920 --> 00:10:02,640
HE WAS INTERESTED IN BEES AND 

269
00:10:02,640 --> 00:10:02,920
ASTRONOMY.

270
00:10:02,920 --> 00:10:05,640
AND SO ALL THIS HAPPENED BETWEEN

271
00:10:05,640 --> 00:10:06,600
1855 AND '65.

272
00:10:06,600 --> 00:10:10,600
AND THEN HE BECAME THE ABBOTT OF

273
00:10:10,600 --> 00:10:15,520
THE AUGUSTINIAN ORDER AND MADE 

274
00:10:15,520 --> 00:10:16,840
HIM FULL TIME ADMINISTRATOR.

275
00:10:16,840 --> 00:10:17,600
HE LEFT SCIENCE.

276
00:10:17,600 --> 00:10:19,000
SO IT WAS A SHORT TIME HE WAS 

277
00:10:19,000 --> 00:10:22,000
INVOLVED IN THIS.

278
00:10:22,000 --> 00:10:23,280
BUT HE DID PUBLISH A FEW PAPERS 

279
00:10:23,280 --> 00:10:24,000
ON THAT.

280
00:10:24,000 --> 00:10:31,080
BUT NO ONE PICKED UP ON THAT AND

281
00:10:31,080 --> 00:10:32,040
OTHER PEOPLE LIKE DARWIN THINK 

282
00:10:32,040 --> 00:10:36,760
ABOUT THIS, DARWIN HAD THIS IDEA

283
00:10:36,760 --> 00:10:39,240
THAT IN THE GERM CELLS THEY WERE

284
00:10:39,240 --> 00:10:40,800
FED BY INFORMATION FROM THE 

285
00:10:40,800 --> 00:10:44,520
DIFFERENT ORGANS IN THIS CAMUL 

286
00:10:44,520 --> 00:10:45,800
THAT HE WAS PICKING UP.

287
00:10:45,800 --> 00:10:48,240
BUT MENDEL TOOK A MORE 

288
00:10:48,240 --> 00:10:51,040
SIMPLIFIED APPROACH AND SEE 

289
00:10:51,040 --> 00:10:59,920
THERE'S A PATTERN IT TOOK A LONG

290
00:10:59,920 --> 00:11:00,800
TIME BEFORE IT WAS APPRECIATED 

291
00:11:00,800 --> 00:11:02,720
SOMETHING IMPORTANTLY HAPPENED.

292
00:11:02,720 --> 00:11:06,960
IT WAS THE TURN OF CENTURY.

293
00:11:06,960 --> 00:11:10,360
THERE WERE THREE AN AUSTRIAN AND

294
00:11:10,360 --> 00:11:16,080
GERMAN, HUGO DEREEVES HAD THIS 

295
00:11:16,080 --> 00:11:16,320
PATTERN.

296
00:11:16,320 --> 00:11:18,120
AND HE COINED THE WORD MUTATION.

297
00:11:18,120 --> 00:11:22,600
BUT THE WORD GENE CAME A LITTLE 

298
00:11:22,600 --> 00:11:30,560
LATER IT WAS BY WILLIAM BATESON 

299
00:11:30,560 --> 00:11:39,560
WHO TERMED THE TERM PANOGENE 

300
00:11:39,560 --> 00:11:39,840
OFFSPRING.

301
00:11:39,840 --> 00:11:40,960
THAT'S THE WAY THEY STARTED 

302
00:11:40,960 --> 00:11:42,080
USING THE TERM GENE.

303
00:11:42,080 --> 00:11:43,320
IN ORDER TO GIVE BACKGROUND, WE 

304
00:11:43,320 --> 00:11:47,440
NEED TO REFLECT ON THE DISCOVERY

305
00:11:47,440 --> 00:11:50,560
OF THE PRIMARY MOLECULES 

306
00:11:50,560 --> 00:11:56,200
INVOLVED IN THIS IN THE MEASURE 

307
00:11:56,200 --> 00:12:05,000
WAS SWISS, SCIENTIST IN BEING 

308
00:12:05,000 --> 00:12:11,000
WHO WAS INVOLVED IN THE FELIX 

309
00:12:11,000 --> 00:12:14,560
LABORATORY IN TUBING, IN 

310
00:12:14,560 --> 00:12:14,920
GERMANY.

311
00:12:14,920 --> 00:12:17,720
THERE HE MADE SOME INTERESTING 

312
00:12:17,720 --> 00:12:18,240
FUNDAMENTAL DISCOVERY.

313
00:12:18,240 --> 00:12:24,080
WORKING WITH PUSS FROM BEING 

314
00:12:24,080 --> 00:12:26,680
INFLAMMATION AND EXTRACTING IT 

315
00:12:26,680 --> 00:12:29,560
FROM PROTEIN WHICH WAS KNOWN AT 

316
00:12:29,560 --> 00:12:30,960
THE TIME.

317
00:12:30,960 --> 00:12:33,760
AND WHERE THE PROTEIN CONTAINED 

318
00:12:33,760 --> 00:12:40,040
SULFUR AND THE SUBSTANCE THAT 

319
00:12:40,040 --> 00:12:43,120
MISER FOUND DID NOT CONTAIN 

320
00:12:43,120 --> 00:12:45,480
SULFUR BUT IT CONTAINED PHOSPHOR

321
00:12:45,480 --> 00:12:47,520
WHICH PROTEIN DID NOT CONTAIN.

322
00:12:47,520 --> 00:12:48,440
IT WAS SOMETHING NEW WAS 

323
00:12:48,440 --> 00:12:52,320
EXTRACTED FROM THE NUCLEIC AND 

324
00:12:52,320 --> 00:12:55,200
REFERRED TO AS NUCLEAN BUT THE 

325
00:12:55,200 --> 00:12:58,880
NAME NUCLEIC ACID DIDN'T COME 

326
00:12:58,880 --> 00:13:02,760
UNTIL 1889, RICHARD ALTMAN 

327
00:13:02,760 --> 00:13:04,640
COINED THAT PHRASE.

328
00:13:04,640 --> 00:13:09,080
SO NUCLEIC ACID WAS AN IMPORTANT

329
00:13:09,080 --> 00:13:09,320
SUBSTANCE.

330
00:13:09,320 --> 00:13:11,400
AND IT WAS IN FACT APPRECIATED 

331
00:13:11,400 --> 00:13:14,720
TO QUITE SOME EXTENT IN THE 

332
00:13:14,720 --> 00:13:16,560
EARLY 1900S.

333
00:13:16,560 --> 00:13:18,720
SO THERE'S THE NOBLE PRIZE IN 

334
00:13:18,720 --> 00:13:23,920
PHYSIOLOGY MEDICINE IN 1910 TO 

335
00:13:23,920 --> 00:13:25,560
ALBRECHT KOHLEL IN RECOGNITION 

336
00:13:25,560 --> 00:13:29,680
TO THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE 

337
00:13:29,680 --> 00:13:30,600
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CELL CHEMISTRY 

338
00:13:30,600 --> 00:13:32,240
AND IT WORKS ON PROTEIN AND 

339
00:13:32,240 --> 00:13:34,520
INCLUDING THE NUCLEIC 

340
00:13:34,520 --> 00:13:34,840
SUBSTANCES.

341
00:13:34,840 --> 00:13:37,200
SO AT THIS TIME, 1910, THERE'S 

342
00:13:37,200 --> 00:13:38,840
STILL SOME RESPECT FOR THAT 

343
00:13:38,840 --> 00:13:46,360
NUCLEIC ACID COULD BE SOMETHING 

344
00:13:46,360 --> 00:13:48,200
IMPORTANT.

345
00:13:48,200 --> 00:13:50,920
AND THEN LEVINE DID AN IMPORTANT

346
00:13:50,920 --> 00:13:52,280
CONTRIBUTION DEFINING THE 

347
00:13:52,280 --> 00:13:54,960
CHEMICAL NATURE OF NUCLEIC 

348
00:13:54,960 --> 00:13:55,160
ACIDS.

349
00:13:55,160 --> 00:13:56,640
ONE HAD THE TERMINOLOGY THAT WAS

350
00:13:56,640 --> 00:14:00,760
SOMETHING CALLED THYMUS NUCLEIC 

351
00:14:00,760 --> 00:14:01,640
ACID AND GENE NUCLEIC ACID. 

352
00:14:01,640 --> 00:14:04,160
SO LEVINE, HE DID IMPORTANT 

353
00:14:04,160 --> 00:14:06,440
STUDIES SHOWING THAT IF YOU 

354
00:14:06,440 --> 00:14:10,400
COMPARE THIS TWO NUCLEIC ACID 

355
00:14:10,400 --> 00:14:14,720
CALLED DNA AND RNA, THEY HAD 

356
00:14:14,720 --> 00:14:19,600
DIFFERENT SUGARS AND THEY HAVE 

357
00:14:19,600 --> 00:14:24,400
ALSO DIFFERENT NUCLEOTIDE 

358
00:14:24,400 --> 00:14:24,760
COMPOSITION.

359
00:14:24,760 --> 00:14:25,760
THIS WAS VERY IMPORTANT 

360
00:14:25,760 --> 00:14:28,880
FUNDAMENTAL WORK DEFINING THE 

361
00:14:28,880 --> 00:14:37,440
NATURE OF TWO CATEGORIES CALLED 

362
00:14:37,440 --> 00:14:38,840
DNA, RNA.

363
00:14:38,840 --> 00:14:41,800
BUT WHAT LEVINE ALSO DID HE 

364
00:14:41,800 --> 00:14:44,640
COINED A HYPOTHESIS SAYING THAT 

365
00:14:44,640 --> 00:14:47,080
THE FOUR NUCLEOTIDES THEY ALWAYS

366
00:14:47,080 --> 00:14:50,920
APPEARED IN ABOUT THE SAME 

367
00:14:50,920 --> 00:14:52,000
PROPORTION.

368
00:14:52,000 --> 00:14:53,720
OF COURSE DIDN'T MAKE NUCLEIC 

369
00:14:53,720 --> 00:14:55,400
ACID AN EXCITING SUBSTANCE.

370
00:14:55,400 --> 00:14:58,720
HE GAVE THE IDEA IT WAS MORE 

371
00:14:58,720 --> 00:15:01,600
LIKE A SUPPORT SUBSTANCE AND 

372
00:15:01,600 --> 00:15:03,600
THIS TOOK THE FOCUS OUT OF 

373
00:15:03,600 --> 00:15:08,320
NUCLEIC ACID AS BEING SOMETHING 

374
00:15:08,320 --> 00:15:11,200
IMPORTANT.

375
00:15:11,200 --> 00:15:16,480
WHAT ABOUT FURTHER IN THE FIELD.

376
00:15:16,480 --> 00:15:18,880
THIS SHOULD BE A NOBEL PRIZE 

377
00:15:18,880 --> 00:15:23,480
PHYSIOLOGY ON MEDICINE IN 1933 

378
00:15:23,480 --> 00:15:28,960
WHICH WAS GIVEN TO THOMAS H 

379
00:15:28,960 --> 00:15:33,000
MORGAN CAN WE DO SOMETHING ABOUT

380
00:15:33,000 --> 00:15:37,480
THE FIGURES?

381
00:15:37,480 --> 00:15:41,640
HE INTRODUCED THE SYSTEM OF THE 

382
00:15:41,640 --> 00:15:42,360
DROSOPHILA FLY.

383
00:15:42,360 --> 00:15:44,600
IT STIMULATED DEVELOPMENT IN THE

384
00:15:44,600 --> 00:15:46,320
FIELD BECAUSE YOU COULD DO 

385
00:15:46,320 --> 00:15:48,480
IMPRESSIVE GENETICS WITH THAT.

386
00:15:48,480 --> 00:15:52,280
AND IT WAS RECOGNIZED BY THE 

387
00:15:52,280 --> 00:15:57,280
NOBEL PRIZE IN 1933.

388
00:15:57,280 --> 00:15:59,240
LATER HIS STUDENT THAT WE COME 

389
00:15:59,240 --> 00:16:03,200
TO IN A MINUTE ALSO RECEIVED A 

390
00:16:03,200 --> 00:16:06,360
NOBEL PRIZE AND FURTHER ON WE 

391
00:16:06,360 --> 00:16:09,360
HAD A NOBEL PRIZE IN INTRODUCED 

392
00:16:09,360 --> 00:16:13,760
THE FRUIT FLY IN DEVELOPING THE 

393
00:16:13,760 --> 00:16:14,800
OF THE PHENOMENON.

394
00:16:14,800 --> 00:16:17,040
IT WAS CRITICAL TO UNDERSTAND 

395
00:16:17,040 --> 00:16:18,400
ABOUT HEREDITY.

396
00:16:18,400 --> 00:16:20,040
ALSO MENTIONED OUR WORLD OF 

397
00:16:20,040 --> 00:16:21,320
THINKING AT THE TIME DID CHANGE.

398
00:16:21,320 --> 00:16:24,320
IN PHYSICS THERE WERE A LOT OF 

399
00:16:24,320 --> 00:16:26,560
THINGS HAPPENING AND THERE WERE 

400
00:16:26,560 --> 00:16:29,120
NEW LET'S SAY WAYS OF THINKING 

401
00:16:29,120 --> 00:16:33,640
ALL THE WAY FROM EINSTEIN ENERGY

402
00:16:33,640 --> 00:16:35,640
AND MATERIAL INTERCHANGEABLE THE

403
00:16:35,640 --> 00:16:37,040
ROLE OF LIGHT AND SO FORTH.

404
00:16:37,040 --> 00:16:40,360
SO STARTED TO OPEN UP THE 

405
00:16:40,360 --> 00:16:42,840
INTELLECTUAL AGENDA.

406
00:16:42,840 --> 00:16:47,880
AND SECOND NOBEL LAUREATE IN 

407
00:16:47,880 --> 00:16:51,760
CHEMISTRY IS HERMAN MILLER WHO 

408
00:16:51,760 --> 00:16:56,680
IDENTIFIED THAT MUTATIONS COULD 

409
00:16:56,680 --> 00:17:00,680
BE INDUCED BY EXTRA RADIATION.

410
00:17:00,680 --> 00:17:02,640
THAT BECAME AN IMPORTANT TOOL IN

411
00:17:02,640 --> 00:17:08,640
FURTHERING THE STATUS OF 

412
00:17:08,640 --> 00:17:10,280
GENETICS.

413
00:17:10,280 --> 00:17:12,680
FOUND AN INTERESTING STATEMENT 

414
00:17:12,680 --> 00:17:16,400
BY MILLER IN 1940 WHICH WAS A 

415
00:17:16,400 --> 00:17:17,520
FEELING FOR WHAT THE 

416
00:17:17,520 --> 00:17:20,040
DEVELOPMENTS OF THAT AND HE MADE

417
00:17:20,040 --> 00:17:21,880
THE STATEMENT IN 1920.

418
00:17:21,880 --> 00:17:24,200
SO IT WOULD GIVE US AN UTTERLY 

419
00:17:24,200 --> 00:17:27,840
NEW ANGLE FROM WHICH TO ATTACK 

420
00:17:27,840 --> 00:17:29,280
THE GENE PROBLEM.

421
00:17:29,280 --> 00:17:31,000
THE VIRUS MY REMARK ARE 

422
00:17:31,000 --> 00:17:34,680
FILTERABLE TO SOME EXTENT IS 

423
00:17:34,680 --> 00:17:37,720
DELIGHTABLE AND CAN BE HANDLED 

424
00:17:37,720 --> 00:17:41,600
IN TEST TUESDAY.

425
00:17:41,600 --> 00:17:42,960
AND COULD BE USED IN GENES.

426
00:17:42,960 --> 00:17:44,920
AND AT PRESENT WE MUST CONFESS 

427
00:17:44,920 --> 00:17:46,680
THERE'S NO DISTINCTION KNOWN 

428
00:17:46,680 --> 00:17:48,600
BETWEEN THE GENE AND THEM.

429
00:17:48,600 --> 00:17:50,680
HENCE WE CANNOT CATEGORICALLY 

430
00:17:50,680 --> 00:17:54,160
DENY THAT PERHAPS WE MAY BE ABLE

431
00:17:54,160 --> 00:17:58,280
TO FIND GENES IN THE MORTAR AND 

432
00:17:58,280 --> 00:18:02,520
COOK THEM IN A TOOL.

433
00:18:02,520 --> 00:18:03,400
GENETICS COULD BE AN 

434
00:18:03,400 --> 00:18:04,400
EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE AND IT 

435
00:18:04,400 --> 00:18:05,720
COULD BE STARTED IN A 

436
00:18:05,720 --> 00:18:06,200
LABORATORY.

437
00:18:06,200 --> 00:18:08,720
AND THIS WAS CERTAINLY VERY 

438
00:18:08,720 --> 00:18:10,960
FORESIGHT STATEMENT IN 1920 

439
00:18:10,960 --> 00:18:12,360
BECAUSE OF COURSE 20 YEARS LATER

440
00:18:12,360 --> 00:18:14,880
IT TURNED OUT THIS WAS THE CASE.

441
00:18:14,880 --> 00:18:18,160
ONE COULD STUDY GENES IN THE 

442
00:18:18,160 --> 00:18:24,240
TEST TUBE.

443
00:18:24,240 --> 00:18:26,720
SKIP THAT ONE WE'LL COME TO A 

444
00:18:26,720 --> 00:18:29,400
CENTRAL FIGURE IN THIS LECTURE 

445
00:18:29,400 --> 00:18:33,360
AND THAT'S MAX DELLBROOKE.

446
00:18:33,360 --> 00:18:36,440
MAX DELBROOKE WAS A PHYSICIST 

447
00:18:36,440 --> 00:18:37,880
COMING FROM A HIGHLY 

448
00:18:37,880 --> 00:18:40,880
INTELLECTUAL GERMAN FAMILY WITH 

449
00:18:40,880 --> 00:18:48,960
LONG TRADITIONS AND HE GOT A LOT

450
00:18:48,960 --> 00:18:52,760
OF WORK ON STIMULUS WORK, 

451
00:18:52,760 --> 00:19:01,000
DISEASES, ASTRONOMY VISITS BY 

452
00:19:01,000 --> 00:19:04,640
NELS BOOR FAMOUS PLACE IN 

453
00:19:04,640 --> 00:19:04,920
COPENHAGEN.

454
00:19:04,920 --> 00:19:06,480
GOT BROAD EXPOSURE TO PHYSICS 

455
00:19:06,480 --> 00:19:11,040
AND ALSO SOME OTHER NEW THINKING

456
00:19:11,040 --> 00:19:14,960
BECAUSE HOW ARE WE DOING, 

457
00:19:14,960 --> 00:19:21,480
NOTHING -- ANY HOW NEILS BOAR HE

458
00:19:21,480 --> 00:19:22,960
HAD BROAD IS THERE HE WANTED TO 

459
00:19:22,960 --> 00:19:26,760
APPLY THINKING IN PHYSICS INTO 

460
00:19:26,760 --> 00:19:32,600
BIOLOGY AND THIS THINKING THEN 

461
00:19:32,600 --> 00:19:36,120
INCLUDED HE MADE SPECULATIVE 

462
00:19:36,120 --> 00:19:43,720
ARTICLE IN NATURE IN 1933 ABOUT 

463
00:19:43,720 --> 00:19:46,480
LIFE AND THINKING.

464
00:19:46,480 --> 00:19:51,960
AND IT STIMULATED MAX DELBROOK 

465
00:19:51,960 --> 00:19:53,680
AND OTHER PEOPLE HE MET IN THE 

466
00:19:53,680 --> 00:19:55,440
LABORATORY HE WANTED TO STUDY 

467
00:19:55,440 --> 00:19:56,760
BIOLOGY BUT HE DIDN'T KNOW WHAT 

468
00:19:56,760 --> 00:19:59,760
THAT WOULD IMPLY.

469
00:19:59,760 --> 00:20:04,200
BUT WHEN HE CAME BACK TO BERLIN 

470
00:20:04,200 --> 00:20:06,000
WHERE HE LIVED AND IN FACT HIS 

471
00:20:06,000 --> 00:20:09,360
MOTHER AT THE TIME, HE FORMED A 

472
00:20:09,360 --> 00:20:17,960
NEW GROUP TOGETHER WITH 

473
00:20:17,960 --> 00:20:18,600
GENETI

474
00:20:18,600 --> 00:20:19,240
GENETI

475
00:20:19,240 --> 00:20:20,560
GENETICIST OF RUSSIAN ORIGIN AND

476
00:20:20,560 --> 00:20:23,960
A LOT COULD BE SAID ABOUT THIS 

477
00:20:23,960 --> 00:20:26,760
GENETICIST BUT HE WAS WELL 

478
00:20:26,760 --> 00:20:29,800
INFORMED AND HE WORKED AT THE 

479
00:20:29,800 --> 00:20:32,160
NEUROSCIENTIST FAMILY. BERLIN
WAS HIS

480
00:20:32,160 --> 00:20:33,080
HOMETOWN STAYING WITH HIS FAMILY

481
00:20:33,080 --> 00:20:33,880
IN 1935.

482
00:20:33,880 --> 00:20:36,400
AND IS HE WANTED TO ATTACK THE 

483
00:20:36,400 --> 00:20:40,600
PROBLEM OF BIOLOGY BY USE OF THE

484
00:20:40,600 --> 00:20:42,680
THINKING OF A PHYSICIST.

485
00:20:42,680 --> 00:20:45,280
AND TOGETHER WITH A GENETICIST 

486
00:20:45,280 --> 00:20:51,200
BY THE NAME OF NIKOLAY RESSOVSKY

487
00:20:51,200 --> 00:20:55,640
HE HAD A DEBATE A THIRD PERSON 

488
00:20:55,640 --> 00:20:59,520
BY THE NAME OF ZIMMER RADIO 

489
00:20:59,520 --> 00:20:59,800
BIOLOGIST.

490
00:20:59,800 --> 00:21:02,960
THEY WERE TRYING TO FIGURE OUT 

491
00:21:02,960 --> 00:21:07,040
COULD ONE FIGURE OUT THE GENE BY

492
00:21:07,040 --> 00:21:07,400
EX-IRRADIATION.

493
00:21:07,400 --> 00:21:11,480
THIS IS THE APPROACH THEY TOOK 

494
00:21:11,480 --> 00:21:15,560
AND THEY WROTE QUITE AN 

495
00:21:15,560 --> 00:21:20,640
LABORATORY PAPER ON THIS IT'S 

496
00:21:20,640 --> 00:21:22,560
SOMETHING CALLED THE GREENBLAT.

497
00:21:22,560 --> 00:21:24,120
AND IT WAS A JOURNAL THAT DIDN'T

498
00:21:24,120 --> 00:21:25,440
SURVIVE VERY LONG.

499
00:21:25,440 --> 00:21:27,240
BUT ANYHOW, IT'S OVER THE NATURE

500
00:21:27,240 --> 00:21:31,400
OF GENE MUTATION, AND THE GENE 

501
00:21:31,400 --> 00:21:31,760
STRUCTURE.

502
00:21:31,760 --> 00:21:34,040
VERY AMBITIOUS.

503
00:21:34,040 --> 00:21:39,080
SOME 60, 70 PAGES.

504
00:21:39,080 --> 00:21:40,000
AND THEY SPECULATED THAT, YES, 

505
00:21:40,000 --> 00:21:43,080
WHEN THEY HAD SOME IDEA ABOUT 

506
00:21:43,080 --> 00:21:49,280
THE SIZE AS DETERMINED BY 

507
00:21:49,280 --> 00:21:49,640
EX-IRRADIATION.

508
00:21:49,640 --> 00:21:51,600
AND THIS PUT THE INTEREST BACK 

509
00:21:51,600 --> 00:21:53,120
IN NUCLEIC ACID.

510
00:21:53,120 --> 00:21:56,800
AND I WANTED TO HIGHLIGHT TWO 

511
00:21:56,800 --> 00:21:57,680
SWEDISH SCIENTISTS THAT PLAYED A

512
00:21:57,680 --> 00:22:06,640
MAJOR ROLE IN THIS WORK.

513
00:22:06,640 --> 00:22:06,920
O

514
00:22:06,920 --> 00:22:07,560
ONE IS HAMMARSTEN.

515
00:22:07,560 --> 00:22:08,480
FROM THE INSTITUTE.

516
00:22:08,480 --> 00:22:11,080
HE HAD AN UNCLE A BIOCHEMIST.

517
00:22:11,080 --> 00:22:12,480
THEY WERE INVOLVED IN THE STUDY 

518
00:22:12,480 --> 00:22:15,000
OF NUCLEIC ACIDS, AND HE SPENT 

519
00:22:15,000 --> 00:22:17,560
HIS WHOLE LIFE RESEARCHING 

520
00:22:17,560 --> 00:22:18,960
NUCLEIC ACID.

521
00:22:18,960 --> 00:22:29,200
AND ANOTHER WAS 

522
00:22:29,200 --> 00:22:29,600
TORBJORNCASPERSSON.

523
00:22:29,600 --> 00:22:32,520
THEY DID SOME EXPERIMENTS IN THE

524
00:22:32,520 --> 00:22:35,440
1930S USING THE NEWLY DEVELOPED 

525
00:22:35,440 --> 00:22:37,840
ULTRA CENTRIFUGE USING THAT 

526
00:22:37,840 --> 00:22:42,560
NUCLEIC ACID HAD REMARKABLY HIGH

527
00:22:42,560 --> 00:22:43,320
MOLECULAR WEIGHTS.

528
00:22:43,320 --> 00:22:44,720
ALTHOUGH THEY COULDN'T DRAW ANY 

529
00:22:44,720 --> 00:22:47,320
CONCLUSIONS OF THAT.

530
00:22:47,320 --> 00:22:50,400
LATER ON, NCASPERSSON WAS 

531
00:22:50,400 --> 00:22:53,360
INVOLVED IN STUDIES OF WHAT 

532
00:22:53,360 --> 00:22:57,560
HAPPENS IN CELLS DURING THEIR 

533
00:22:57,560 --> 00:22:57,880
REPLICATION.

534
00:22:57,880 --> 00:23:01,160
AND HE AND BRACERE DID SOME 

535
00:23:01,160 --> 00:23:04,560
IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS IN 1940S.

536
00:23:04,560 --> 00:23:06,440
THEY WERE MEASURING THE AMOUNT 

537
00:23:06,440 --> 00:23:12,880
OF PROTEIN SENSORS BY LOOKING AT

538
00:23:12,880 --> 00:23:20,040
THE EXTENSION 218, THEY WERE 

539
00:23:20,040 --> 00:23:24,640
LOOKING AT NUCLEIC, ACIDS IN THE

540
00:23:24,640 --> 00:23:26,080
EXTENSION OF 260.

541
00:23:26,080 --> 00:23:28,360
THEY SAW AMAZING THINGS THEY 

542
00:23:28,360 --> 00:23:30,880
COULDN'T INTERPRET NAMELY THAT 

543
00:23:30,880 --> 00:23:33,360
SYNTHESIS OF NUCLEIC ACID SEEMED

544
00:23:33,360 --> 00:23:36,000
TO PRECEDE THE SYNTHESIS OF 

545
00:23:36,000 --> 00:23:36,960
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.

546
00:23:36,960 --> 00:23:39,080
BUT IT WAS NOT UNDERSTOOD IN 

547
00:23:39,080 --> 00:23:44,640
1940S HOW MUCH THIS MEANS.

548
00:23:44,640 --> 00:23:46,080
HAMMARSTEN LATER ON HE WAS THE 

549
00:23:46,080 --> 00:23:47,640
INVOLVED OF THE EVALUATION OF 

550
00:23:47,640 --> 00:23:51,160
AVERY, WHO WE WILL COME BACK TO 

551
00:23:51,160 --> 00:23:52,120
IN A MOMENT.

552
00:23:52,120 --> 00:23:55,360
THE GREENBLAT THAT THE 

553
00:23:55,360 --> 00:23:58,760
COLLEAGUES WROTE INSPIRED THE 

554
00:23:58,760 --> 00:24:01,320
PHYSICIST IRVING SCHROEDER TO 

555
00:24:01,320 --> 00:24:04,080
WRITE THE FAMOUS BOOK WHAT IS 

556
00:24:04,080 --> 00:24:04,560
LI"WHAT IS 

557
00:24:04,560 --> 00:24:05,000
LIF

558
00:24:05,000 --> 00:24:05,200
LIFE".

559
00:24:05,200 --> 00:24:07,640
THIS BOOK IN TURN INSPIRED A 

560
00:24:07,640 --> 00:24:11,040
NUMBER OF SCIENTISTS INCLUDING 

561
00:24:11,040 --> 00:24:13,200
WHAT'S IN THE NATURE OF THE 

562
00:24:13,200 --> 00:24:15,040
GENETIC MATERIAL.

563
00:24:15,040 --> 00:24:21,320
SO IN 1938, DELBROOK MOVED TO 

564
00:24:21,320 --> 00:24:24,440
THE UNITED STATES, MOVED TO THE 

565
00:24:24,440 --> 00:24:26,480
UNITED STATES AND HE HAD A 

566
00:24:26,480 --> 00:24:28,440
SCHOLARSHIP FROM ROCKEFELLER AND

567
00:24:28,440 --> 00:24:32,360
THE IDEA WAS TO TRY TO SEARCH 

568
00:24:32,360 --> 00:24:36,920
FOR NATURE OF GENES.

569
00:24:36,920 --> 00:24:40,000
HE VERY SOON LEARNED THAT 

570
00:24:40,000 --> 00:24:42,640
DROSOPHILA TECHNIQUE DID NOT 

571
00:24:42,640 --> 00:24:44,400
ALLOW THE DETAIL OF STATUS OF 

572
00:24:44,400 --> 00:24:44,800
GENES.

573
00:24:44,800 --> 00:24:46,000
BUT AT THE SAME TIME THERE WAS 

574
00:24:46,000 --> 00:24:47,440
ANOTHER PERSON BY THE NAME OF 

575
00:24:47,440 --> 00:24:50,160
GEORGE ELLIS IN THE LABORATORY.

576
00:24:50,160 --> 00:24:52,280
AND HE WAS INTRODUCED IN THE 

577
00:24:52,280 --> 00:24:54,960
KIND OF VIRUSES THAT HAVE BEEN 

578
00:24:54,960 --> 00:25:00,120
IN A FOCUS A LOT OF THE TIME 

579
00:25:00,120 --> 00:25:07,040
NAMELY BACTERIOPHAGES AND THEY 

580
00:25:07,040 --> 00:25:09,800
FOUND OUT THIS IS AN ATTRACTIVE 

581
00:25:09,800 --> 00:25:14,600
SYSTEM TO STUDY GENES.

582
00:25:14,600 --> 00:25:17,000
AND THAT'S HOW IT ALL GOT 

583
00:25:17,000 --> 00:25:17,240
STARTED.

584
00:25:17,240 --> 00:25:18,200
BEFORE THAT I SHOULD MENTION 

585
00:25:18,200 --> 00:25:24,640
THAT DURING THE 1930S STANLEY 

586
00:25:24,640 --> 00:25:29,320
WAS STUDYING THE MOSFIC VIRUS 

587
00:25:29,320 --> 00:25:31,320
AND HIS READING THIS CONTAINED 

588
00:25:31,320 --> 00:25:33,240
ESSENTIALLY ONLY PROTEIN AND HE 

589
00:25:33,240 --> 00:25:37,200
GOT THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR 

590
00:25:37,200 --> 00:25:43,320
PREPARATION OF ENZYME PROTEIN 

591
00:25:43,320 --> 00:25:44,520
ENZYMES IN 1946.

592
00:25:44,520 --> 00:25:46,400
BUT IT COULD BE CRYSTALLIZED AND

593
00:25:46,400 --> 00:25:47,200
LOOKED LIKE THIS.

594
00:25:47,200 --> 00:25:49,640
IT TURNED OUT LATER ON THAT IT 

595
00:25:49,640 --> 00:25:52,480
WASN'T ONLY PROTEIN.

596
00:25:52,480 --> 00:25:55,240
IT ALSO CONTAINED 5% NUCLEIC 

597
00:25:55,240 --> 00:25:57,280
ACID BUT THAT WAS DISREGARDED AT

598
00:25:57,280 --> 00:25:57,760
THE TIME.

599
00:25:57,760 --> 00:25:58,920
BUT YOU CAN IMAGINE THE WAY THE 

600
00:25:58,920 --> 00:26:00,480
PRESS WAS THINKING ABOUT THIS, 

601
00:26:00,480 --> 00:26:01,920
THAT HERE YOU COULD TAKE A 

602
00:26:01,920 --> 00:26:03,400
VIRUS, YOU COULD FORM CRYSTALS, 

603
00:26:03,400 --> 00:26:05,000
AND THESE CRYSTALS COULD THEN BE

604
00:26:05,000 --> 00:26:08,560
DISSOLVED AND THEY COULD 

605
00:26:08,560 --> 00:26:11,760
REPLICATE, AND HOW DO YOU 

606
00:26:11,760 --> 00:26:15,120
CORRELATE THAT WITH THE NATURE 

607
00:26:15,120 --> 00:26:17,400
OF LIFE AND NATURE OF JEEPS AND 

608
00:26:17,400 --> 00:26:17,800
SO FORTH.

609
00:26:17,800 --> 00:26:19,480
AND HE THOUGHT THAT IT WAS 

610
00:26:19,480 --> 00:26:23,440
PRIMARILY THE PROTEIN THAT WAS 

611
00:26:23,440 --> 00:26:26,600
IMPORTANT BUT OVERLOOKING THAT 

612
00:26:26,600 --> 00:26:31,680
SOME BRITISH VIROLOGISTS THAT 

613
00:26:31,680 --> 00:26:33,960
THE IT CONTAINS 5% RNA.

614
00:26:33,960 --> 00:26:38,080
BUT IN THE LECTURE, YOU CAN SEE 

615
00:26:38,080 --> 00:26:40,440
HERE THAT ON THE FIFTH LINE FROM

616
00:26:40,440 --> 00:26:42,720
THE BOTTOM MILLER HAS INTRODUCED

617
00:26:42,720 --> 00:26:45,520
A SIZE OF A GENE.

618
00:26:45,520 --> 00:26:50,880
VERY SPECULATIVE FASHION.

619
00:26:50,880 --> 00:26:52,240
125 TIMES AND WHAT WAS THE BASIS

620
00:26:52,240 --> 00:26:54,360
FOR THIS WAS VERY SPECULATIVE.

621
00:26:54,360 --> 00:26:57,840
BUT AT THE SAME TIME, THOSE DAYS

622
00:26:57,840 --> 00:27:00,560
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ELECTRON 

623
00:27:00,560 --> 00:27:02,040
MICROSCOPE HAS ALLOWED THE 

624
00:27:02,040 --> 00:27:04,240
IDENTIFICATION IN THE EARLY 

625
00:27:04,240 --> 00:27:07,160
1940S OF THE SIZE OF VIRUSES, 

626
00:27:07,160 --> 00:27:11,000
WHICH WAS A MAJOR TURNING POINT 

627
00:27:11,000 --> 00:27:13,120
IN VIROLOGY, OF COURSE WHEN YOU 

628
00:27:13,120 --> 00:27:15,080
COULD SEE THE PARTICLE STUDIED.

629
00:27:15,080 --> 00:27:16,360
BUT HERE'S A LOOSE SPECULATION 

630
00:27:16,360 --> 00:27:19,880
OF THE SIZE OF A GENE.

631
00:27:19,880 --> 00:27:21,440
NOT VERY WELL FOUNDED I THINK 

632
00:27:21,440 --> 00:27:23,000
ONE SHOULD ADMIT.

633
00:27:23,000 --> 00:27:25,720
NOW, AS I MENTIONED MY 

634
00:27:25,720 --> 00:27:27,080
INVOLVEMENT IN WRITING ABOUT 

635
00:27:27,080 --> 00:27:28,160
NOBEL PRIZES, AND THIS IS A 

636
00:27:28,160 --> 00:27:30,200
SERIES OF FOUR BOOKS THAT I 

637
00:27:30,200 --> 00:27:32,920
PUBLISHED BEFORE MOST RECENT ONE

638
00:27:32,920 --> 00:27:34,680
THAT CAME LAST AUTUMN AND THE 

639
00:27:34,680 --> 00:27:36,480
FIRST ONE WAS A BOOK AS I SAID 

640
00:27:36,480 --> 00:27:39,280
IN GENERAL SCIENCES.

641
00:27:39,280 --> 00:27:42,240
AND THEN THEY TAKE OFF OVER 

642
00:27:42,240 --> 00:27:42,600
TIME.

643
00:27:42,600 --> 00:27:45,480
SO THE 19 -- THE SECOND BOOK 

644
00:27:45,480 --> 00:27:48,120
WHICH ON THE TOP RIGHT COVERS 

645
00:27:48,120 --> 00:27:52,360
THE NOBEL PRIZE OF 60, 61, 62.

646
00:27:52,360 --> 00:27:55,160
AND WE'LL COME BACK TO THE 62 

647
00:27:55,160 --> 00:27:57,320
PRIZE TO WATSON AND CREEK 

648
00:27:57,320 --> 00:27:58,400
BECAUSE THAT'S FUNDAMENTAL IN 

649
00:27:58,400 --> 00:28:00,040
ALL THE DEVELOPMENT.

650
00:28:00,040 --> 00:28:03,440
THEN THE FOLLOWING BOOKS WAS 

651
00:28:03,440 --> 00:28:07,040
ONE, 63, 64, 65.

652
00:28:07,040 --> 00:28:13,480
AND THEN 66, 67, 68 AND 68 IS OF

653
00:28:13,480 --> 00:28:16,520
COURSE THE IDENTIFICATION AND 

654
00:28:16,520 --> 00:28:19,120
NATURE OF THE GENETIC CODE BUT 

655
00:28:19,120 --> 00:28:21,640
BEFORE WE GET THERE WE NEED TO 

656
00:28:21,640 --> 00:28:24,760
GO BACK TO THE WHAT CLAIMED TO 

657
00:28:24,760 --> 00:28:29,440
PLAY QUITE A ROLE IN STUDIES OF 

658
00:28:29,440 --> 00:28:37,800
GENES AND THAT WAS THE BACTE

659
00:28:37,800 --> 00:28:39,600
BACTERIAPHAGES, IT WAS DEVELOPED

660
00:28:39,600 --> 00:28:42,240
BY FEEL ELECTION AT THE PASTEUR 

661
00:28:42,240 --> 00:28:42,560
INSTITUTE.

662
00:28:42,560 --> 00:28:44,000
YOU CAN SEE THE IDENTIFICATION 

663
00:28:44,000 --> 00:28:46,080
OF THE VARIOUS PLAQUES THEY 

664
00:28:46,080 --> 00:28:50,440
COULD FORM IN A BACTERIA 

665
00:28:50,440 --> 00:28:50,920
MONOLAYER.

666
00:28:50,920 --> 00:28:55,680
AND IT SHOULD BE ADDED THAT 

667
00:28:55,680 --> 00:28:57,480
DHERELLE WAS NOMINATED FOR A 

668
00:28:57,480 --> 00:28:58,000
NOBEL PRIZE.

669
00:28:58,000 --> 00:28:59,800
NEVER RECEIVED IT BUT AN ENGLISH

670
00:28:59,800 --> 00:29:02,360
MAN BY THE NAME OF WARD WHO HAD 

671
00:29:02,360 --> 00:29:05,400
ALSO DISCOVERED BACTERIOPHAGE 

672
00:29:05,400 --> 00:29:07,400
SOMEWHAT EARLIER, AND I'VE 

673
00:29:07,400 --> 00:29:17,880
WRITTEN EXTENSIVELY BY WHY 

674
00:29:20,320 --> 00:29:22,240
DHERELLE DIDN'T RECEIVE IT.

675
00:29:22,240 --> 00:29:24,320
HE WANTED TO TREAT BACTERIA 

676
00:29:24,320 --> 00:29:24,600
INFECTIONS.

677
00:29:24,600 --> 00:29:25,320
HE THOUGHT THIS WOULD BE AN 

678
00:29:25,320 --> 00:29:25,960
EXCELLENT REMEDY.

679
00:29:25,960 --> 00:29:27,520
AND I THOUGHT HE HAD PROVIDED 

680
00:29:27,520 --> 00:29:28,520
EVIDENCE FOR THE FACT THAT IT 

681
00:29:28,520 --> 00:29:31,760
WAS HELPFUL TO TRY TO TREAT 

682
00:29:31,760 --> 00:29:35,600
VARIOUS BACTERIAL DISEASES WITH 

683
00:29:35,600 --> 00:29:35,960
BACTERIOPHAGE.

684
00:29:35,960 --> 00:29:38,360
AND HE FOLLOWED IT UP THROUGHOUT

685
00:29:38,360 --> 00:29:40,160
HIS LIFE.

686
00:29:40,160 --> 00:29:47,600
BUT THEN MAX DELLBROOK AND 

687
00:29:47,600 --> 00:29:49,880
DHERELLE THEY REALIZED MAYBE YOU

688
00:29:49,880 --> 00:29:51,160
COULD USE BACTERIOPHAGE TO STUDY

689
00:29:51,160 --> 00:29:51,520
GENES.

690
00:29:51,520 --> 00:29:53,360
YOU SHOULD KEEP IN MIND IN THE 

691
00:29:53,360 --> 00:29:56,280
EARLY 1940S IT WASN'T CLEAR IF 

692
00:29:56,280 --> 00:29:58,520
DO VIRUSES CONTAIN GENES, DO 

693
00:29:58,520 --> 00:30:00,120
BACTERIA CONTAIN GENES?

694
00:30:00,120 --> 00:30:01,240
THESE SIMPLE STRUCTURES.

695
00:30:01,240 --> 00:30:03,560
SO A LOT OF PIONEERING THINKING.

696
00:30:03,560 --> 00:30:06,200
BUT IT TURNED OUT TO BE VERY 

697
00:30:06,200 --> 00:30:06,920
CONVENIENT SYSTEM.

698
00:30:06,920 --> 00:30:10,160
YOU COULD IDENTIFY A NUMBER OF 

699
00:30:10,160 --> 00:30:11,240
DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF THE 

700
00:30:11,240 --> 00:30:11,600
BACTERIOPHAGES.

701
00:30:11,600 --> 00:30:12,840
YOU COULD CROSS THEM.

702
00:30:12,840 --> 00:30:15,040
YOU COULD SEE THAT THIS WAS A 

703
00:30:15,040 --> 00:30:19,400
WAY OF STUDYING GENETICS.

704
00:30:19,400 --> 00:30:20,920
AND THEREFORE THEY OPENED UP A 

705
00:30:20,920 --> 00:30:22,640
COMPLETELY NEW FIELD.

706
00:30:22,640 --> 00:30:23,920
I'LL SKIP THAT.

707
00:30:23,920 --> 00:30:27,080
AND THEY STARTED TO GIVE COURSES

708
00:30:27,080 --> 00:30:28,640
AT COLD SPRING HARBOR.

709
00:30:28,640 --> 00:30:32,400
AND THESE WERE FAMOUS COURSES 

710
00:30:32,400 --> 00:30:35,920
THAT WERE ACTUALLY ONGOING FOR 

711
00:30:35,920 --> 00:30:38,160
25 YEARS FROM THE END OF THE 

712
00:30:38,160 --> 00:30:39,160
1940S ONWARD.

713
00:30:39,160 --> 00:30:41,760
TEACHING COLLEAGUES HOW YOU WORK

714
00:30:41,760 --> 00:30:43,560
WITH BACTERIOPHAGES, HOW YOU DO 

715
00:30:43,560 --> 00:30:44,720
GENETIC STUDIES AND SO FORTH.

716
00:30:44,720 --> 00:30:46,560
AND THE PROGRESSIVELY THIS 

717
00:30:46,560 --> 00:30:49,960
OPENED UP THE FIELD WHEN IT WAS 

718
00:30:49,960 --> 00:30:54,440
CLEAR THAT, YES, BACTERIA 

719
00:30:54,440 --> 00:30:56,080
VIRUSES, BACTERIOPHAGES DO 

720
00:30:56,080 --> 00:30:57,640
CONTAIN GENES AND GENETICS CAN 

721
00:30:57,640 --> 00:30:59,520
BE STARTED IN THIS VERY SIMPLE 

722
00:30:59,520 --> 00:30:59,880
SYSTEM.

723
00:30:59,880 --> 00:31:02,120
WHICH ALSO GAVE VERY QUICK 

724
00:31:02,120 --> 00:31:03,440
RESULTS BECAUSE OF THE WAY 

725
00:31:03,440 --> 00:31:05,360
PHAGES CAN REPLICATE IN HALF AN 

726
00:31:05,360 --> 00:31:05,880
HOUR.

727
00:31:05,880 --> 00:31:07,960
YOU WILL SEE THE OUTCOME OF 

728
00:31:07,960 --> 00:31:08,200
THIS.

729
00:31:08,200 --> 00:31:12,800
BUT THEN WE NEED TO COME BACK TO

730
00:31:12,800 --> 00:31:14,960
OSWALD AVERY, THIS FAMOUS PAPER 

731
00:31:14,960 --> 00:31:19,120
FROM 1943 IS A VERY SOLID 

732
00:31:19,120 --> 00:31:21,120
SCIENTIFIC PAPER SHOWING THAT IF

733
00:31:21,120 --> 00:31:23,400
YOU HAVE PNEUMOCOCCI WITH 

734
00:31:23,400 --> 00:31:26,120
DIFFERENT PROPERTIES YOU COULD 

735
00:31:26,120 --> 00:31:27,520
EXTRACT OUR DNA AND THIS WAS 

736
00:31:27,520 --> 00:31:29,080
HIGHLY PURIFIED MATERIAL.

737
00:31:29,080 --> 00:31:31,720
BUT OF COURSE YOU CAN ALWAYS 

738
00:31:31,720 --> 00:31:32,880
ARGUE, NO, THERE MUST BE SOME 

739
00:31:32,880 --> 00:31:35,720
PROTEIN IN THERE.

740
00:31:35,720 --> 00:31:37,200
AND THAT I THINK THE 

741
00:31:37,200 --> 00:31:39,640
CONTAMINATION HERE IN THE 

742
00:31:39,640 --> 00:31:41,080
PREPARATION PRODUCED IN THIS 

743
00:31:41,080 --> 00:31:42,040
PAPER 1%.

744
00:31:42,040 --> 00:31:48,640
BUT ONE COULD ARGUE, LIKE HIS 

745
00:31:48,640 --> 00:31:53,200
COLLEAGUES MAERSK AT ROCKEFELLER

746
00:31:53,200 --> 00:31:54,840
COULD BE INTRODUCED BUT IT'S A 

747
00:31:54,840 --> 00:31:56,000
SMALL AMOUNT OF PROTEIN THAT'S 

748
00:31:56,000 --> 00:31:56,400
THERE.

749
00:31:56,400 --> 00:31:58,760
AND CONCEPTUALLY THERE WAS AN 

750
00:31:58,760 --> 00:32:01,080
ENORMOUS BARRIER TO ACCEPT THAT 

751
00:32:01,080 --> 00:32:03,200
NUCLEIC ACID COULD BE A MOLECULE

752
00:32:03,200 --> 00:32:05,480
OF INTEREST BECAUSE THERE WAS 

753
00:32:05,480 --> 00:32:07,600
SUCH A PRETTY BORING MOLECULE.

754
00:32:07,600 --> 00:32:09,280
PROBABLY A SUPPORT SUBSTANCE AS 

755
00:32:09,280 --> 00:32:14,240
HAD BEEN EMPHASIZED BY EARLIER 

756
00:32:14,240 --> 00:32:14,560
CHEMISTS.

757
00:32:14,560 --> 00:32:18,760
AND SO THROUGHOUT THE 1940S, 

758
00:32:18,760 --> 00:32:20,200
EVEN THOUGH ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE 

759
00:32:20,200 --> 00:32:23,480
WAS ACCUMULATING, FOR EXAMPLE, 

760
00:32:23,480 --> 00:32:33,280
THAT IN SEMINAL CELLS, LIKE IN 

761
00:32:33,280 --> 00:32:36,360
SPERMMATSOA AND EGGS THEY HAD 

762
00:32:36,360 --> 00:32:39,480
THE CELLS IT STILL WASN'T RIGHT.

763
00:32:39,480 --> 00:32:41,320
AND IT'S SURPRISING BECAUSE 

764
00:32:41,320 --> 00:32:44,920
HENRY DALE WAS THE PRESIDENT AT 

765
00:32:44,920 --> 00:32:45,880
THE ROYAL SOCIETY HE ARRANGED 

766
00:32:45,880 --> 00:32:48,560
THAT A PRIZE WAS GIVEN TO AVERY 

767
00:32:48,560 --> 00:32:52,120
AT THE TIME IN THE MID-1940S, 

768
00:32:52,120 --> 00:32:54,600
AND THIS IS FROM HIS SPEECH IN 

769
00:32:54,600 --> 00:32:55,120
1944.

770
00:32:55,120 --> 00:32:56,920
"HERE IS A CHANGE TO WHICH, IF 

771
00:32:56,920 --> 00:32:58,440
WE ARE DEALING WITH HIGHER 

772
00:32:58,440 --> 00:33:00,640
ORGANISMS, WE SHOULD ACCORD THE 

773
00:33:00,640 --> 00:33:03,280
STATUS OF GENETIC VARIATION."  

774
00:33:03,280 --> 00:33:06,360
AND THIS IS IN 1944.

775
00:33:06,360 --> 00:33:09,320
AND THE SUBSTANCE INDUCING IT 

776
00:33:09,320 --> 00:33:10,720
THE GENE IN SOLUTION ONE IS 

777
00:33:10,720 --> 00:33:12,200
TEMPTED TO CALL IT APPEARS TO BE

778
00:33:12,200 --> 00:33:15,840
A NUCLEIC AS OF THE DEOX RIBOSE 

779
00:33:15,840 --> 00:33:16,760
TYPE, WHATEVER IT IS SOMETHING 

780
00:33:16,760 --> 00:33:18,240
WHICH SHOULD BE CAPABLE OF 

781
00:33:18,240 --> 00:33:19,600
COMPLETE DESCRIPTION IN TERMS OF

782
00:33:19,600 --> 00:33:20,760
STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY.

783
00:33:20,760 --> 00:33:23,600
THIS IS A PREDICTION IT CAN BE 

784
00:33:23,600 --> 00:33:24,800
POSSIBLE TO STUDY GENETICS AT 

785
00:33:24,800 --> 00:33:28,080
THE MOLECULAR LEVEL.

786
00:33:28,080 --> 00:33:30,760
BUT AGAIN IT DIDN'T FLY IN THE 

787
00:33:30,760 --> 00:33:31,200
SUMMARY.

788
00:33:31,200 --> 00:33:33,800
AVERY WAS NOMINATED FOR A NOBEL 

789
00:33:33,800 --> 00:33:35,120
PRIZE MANY TIMES.

790
00:33:35,120 --> 00:33:39,480
AND THE LAST EVALUATION WAS IN 

791
00:33:39,480 --> 00:33:41,560
1955 BY HAMMARSTEN, SHOWED A 

792
00:33:41,560 --> 00:33:42,320
PICTURE BEFORE.

793
00:33:42,320 --> 00:33:45,920
AND HE SAID, SO IT MAY BE TRUE 

794
00:33:45,920 --> 00:33:47,080
THAT HIS FINDING BUT THERE WERE 

795
00:33:47,080 --> 00:33:48,280
SOME RESERVATIONS.

796
00:33:48,280 --> 00:33:49,840
SO NO PRIZE WAS GIVEN.

797
00:33:49,840 --> 00:33:51,120
AND THEN AVERY DIED.

798
00:33:51,120 --> 00:33:53,520
AND THE YEAR AFTER, THERE'S A 

799
00:33:53,520 --> 00:33:56,960
UNIQUE DOCUMENT IN THE NOBEL 

800
00:33:56,960 --> 00:33:59,400
ARCHIVES BY A SWEDISH NOBEL 

801
00:33:59,400 --> 00:34:02,840
LAUREATE SAYING WE MADE A 

802
00:34:02,840 --> 00:34:03,080
MISTAKE.

803
00:34:03,080 --> 00:34:05,000
YOU FIND RARELY THAT KIND OF 

804
00:34:05,000 --> 00:34:06,960
DOCUMENT IN NOBEL ARCHIVES.

805
00:34:06,960 --> 00:34:09,200
SO AVERY NEVER GOT THE FULL 

806
00:34:09,200 --> 00:34:12,240
CREDIT THAT HE SHOULD HAVE 

807
00:34:12,240 --> 00:34:12,520
RECEIVED.

808
00:34:12,520 --> 00:34:14,960
BUT THINGS STARTED TO DEVELOP 

809
00:34:14,960 --> 00:34:17,040
WITH POWER AND AMONG THIS WAS 

810
00:34:17,040 --> 00:34:19,680
THE NEW ISOTOPE TECHNIQUES THAT 

811
00:34:19,680 --> 00:34:24,200
OPENED UP NEW DOORS IN INVIR 

812
00:34:24,200 --> 00:34:24,520
ROWCHEMISTRY.

813
00:34:24,520 --> 00:34:29,920
AND CLASSICAL HERSHEY AND CHASE 

814
00:34:29,920 --> 00:34:30,640
EXPERIMENT.

815
00:34:30,640 --> 00:34:33,560
HERSHEY AND CHASE, CHASE 

816
00:34:33,560 --> 00:34:35,960
DEVELOPED HER OWN CAREER LATER 

817
00:34:35,960 --> 00:34:36,360
ON.

818
00:34:36,360 --> 00:34:38,520
SO THEY SIMPLY LABELED NUCLEIC 

819
00:34:38,520 --> 00:34:41,200
ACID WITH PHOSPHOROUS AND 

820
00:34:41,200 --> 00:34:43,200
PROTEINS WITH SULFUR AND THEN 

821
00:34:43,200 --> 00:34:47,440
LOOKED AT WHAT HAPPENED WHEN A 

822
00:34:47,440 --> 00:34:49,040
BACTERIOPHAGE INFECTS CELLS.

823
00:34:49,040 --> 00:34:49,680
WHAT HAPPENED WAS, OF COURSE, 

824
00:34:49,680 --> 00:34:51,800
THAT THE NUCLEIC ACID GOT INTO 

825
00:34:51,800 --> 00:34:54,600
THE CELL AND THE SULFUR STAYS ON

826
00:34:54,600 --> 00:34:56,080
THE OUTSIDE, THE PROTEIN.

827
00:34:56,080 --> 00:34:58,760
AND THEN YOU THINK IT WOULD BE 

828
00:34:58,760 --> 00:35:00,600
ALL CLEAR.

829
00:35:00,600 --> 00:35:02,800
BUT NOT SO.

830
00:35:02,800 --> 00:35:05,360
AND BUT THEN CAME, OF COURSE, 

831
00:35:05,360 --> 00:35:08,040
THE CONTINUOUS WORK ON THE DNA 

832
00:35:08,040 --> 00:35:08,920
AND STRUCTURED DNA.

833
00:35:08,920 --> 00:35:13,320
AND THAT IS A LONG STORY THAT I 

834
00:35:13,320 --> 00:35:15,360
WON'T ELABORATE.

835
00:35:15,360 --> 00:35:18,720
TWO GROUPS ONE AT KINGS COLLEGE 

836
00:35:18,720 --> 00:35:20,960
WHICH ALLOCATED MEANS FOR THE 

837
00:35:20,960 --> 00:35:22,320
RESEARCH COUNCIL THAT WAS THE 

838
00:35:22,320 --> 00:35:23,640
GROUP THAT WAS GOING TO STUDY 

839
00:35:23,640 --> 00:35:27,240
NUCLEIC ACID AND THERE WAS A 

840
00:35:27,240 --> 00:35:30,400
GROUP WHICH INCLUDED CREEK AND 

841
00:35:30,400 --> 00:35:36,320
WATSON AND HEADED BY BRAGG AT 

842
00:35:36,320 --> 00:35:37,560
CAMBRIDGE THEY WERE GOING TO 

843
00:35:37,560 --> 00:35:38,160
STUDY PROTEINS.

844
00:35:38,160 --> 00:35:39,440
BUT WATSON AND CREEK THEY 

845
00:35:39,440 --> 00:35:41,080
COULDN'T LET GO OF THE IDEA THEY

846
00:35:41,080 --> 00:35:44,360
WANTED TO STUDY NUCLEIC ACID.

847
00:35:44,360 --> 00:35:46,400
SO ROSALIND FRANKLIN WAS A VERY 

848
00:35:46,400 --> 00:35:48,720
CENTRAL FIGURE AND A LOT IS 

849
00:35:48,720 --> 00:35:50,160
WRITTEN ABOUT HER IN AT LEAST 

850
00:35:50,160 --> 00:35:51,600
THREE DIFFERENT BOOKS.

851
00:35:51,600 --> 00:35:54,320
AND THE MOST FAMOUS IS THE 

852
00:35:54,320 --> 00:35:55,760
PHOTOGRAPH '51, WHICH GIVES THE 

853
00:35:55,760 --> 00:35:58,480
NAME OF A PLAY THAT DESCRIBES 

854
00:35:58,480 --> 00:36:01,080
HER CONTRIBUTIONS.

855
00:36:01,080 --> 00:36:03,640
AND IT WAS WHEN CREEK SAW THIS 

856
00:36:03,640 --> 00:36:06,600
PICTURE AND HOW IT GOT INTO HIS 

857
00:36:06,600 --> 00:36:09,800
HANDS HAS BEEN A DEBATE OR 

858
00:36:09,800 --> 00:36:11,120
DISCUSSION FOR A LONG TIME.

859
00:36:11,120 --> 00:36:13,200
HE UNDERSTOOD THAT THE DNA 

860
00:36:13,200 --> 00:36:15,440
SHOULD BE A DOUBLE HELIX.

861
00:36:15,440 --> 00:36:18,000
THERE HAD BEEN EXPERIMENTS BACK 

862
00:36:18,000 --> 00:36:20,000
AND FORTH, AND THEY WERE HAVE 

863
00:36:20,000 --> 00:36:23,800
REFLECTION ON A TRIPLE HELIX.

864
00:36:23,800 --> 00:36:28,000
AND THEN OTHER SCIENTISTS WANTED

865
00:36:28,000 --> 00:36:31,880
TO GET IN HERE AND THEN THAT 

866
00:36:31,880 --> 00:36:33,520
KIND OF KICKED OFF.

867
00:36:33,520 --> 00:36:36,800
SO BRAGG LET WATSON AND CREEK, 

868
00:36:36,800 --> 00:36:41,320
ACTUALLY, STUDY THE NUCLEIC ACID

869
00:36:41,320 --> 00:36:45,360
AND THAT HAPPENED IN EARLY 1953.

870
00:36:45,360 --> 00:36:48,360
AND AS A LITTLE REMINDER, 

871
00:36:48,360 --> 00:36:50,360
ROSALIND AND FRANKLIN'S VERY 

872
00:36:50,360 --> 00:36:52,760
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION.

873
00:36:52,760 --> 00:37:02,240
THIS IS CITED FROM AARON KLUG, 

874
00:37:02,240 --> 00:37:03,560
STUDYING THE VIRUS.

875
00:37:03,560 --> 00:37:04,560
HE SAID IT WAS ROSE LIND FRANK 

876
00:37:04,560 --> 00:37:06,240
LING WHO SET ME THE EXAMPLE OF 

877
00:37:06,240 --> 00:37:07,240
TACKLING LARGE AND DIFFICULT 

878
00:37:07,240 --> 00:37:07,480
PROBLEMS.

879
00:37:07,480 --> 00:37:09,560
HAD HER LIFE NOT BEEN CUT 

880
00:37:09,560 --> 00:37:10,320
TRAGICALLY SHORT, SHE MIGHT HAVE

881
00:37:10,320 --> 00:37:12,120
STOOD IN THIS PLACE ON EARLIER 

882
00:37:12,120 --> 00:37:12,440
OCCASION.

883
00:37:12,440 --> 00:37:17,240
AND SHE HAD DIED IN 1958.

884
00:37:17,240 --> 00:37:19,960
OF AN OVARIAN CANCER.

885
00:37:19,960 --> 00:37:23,920
SHE WAS NEVER NOMINATED FOR A 

886
00:37:23,920 --> 00:37:24,440
NOBEL PRIZE.

887
00:37:24,440 --> 00:37:26,080
BUT WHEN THE FINAL NOMINATION, 

888
00:37:26,080 --> 00:37:27,880
THEY TOOK, AS WE'LL SEE A LONG 

889
00:37:27,880 --> 00:37:28,080
TIME.

890
00:37:28,080 --> 00:37:30,240
THE FIRST NOMINATION FOR A PRIZE

891
00:37:30,240 --> 00:37:32,440
FOR DNA WAS IN 1960.

892
00:37:32,440 --> 00:37:36,600
IN THE REVIEWS, THEN IT 

893
00:37:36,600 --> 00:37:38,680
APPROPRIATELY MENTIONED ABOUT 

894
00:37:38,680 --> 00:37:41,280
HER ABSOLUTELY CRITICAL 

895
00:37:41,280 --> 00:37:43,880
CONTRIBUTION TO THIS 

896
00:37:43,880 --> 00:37:44,480
DEVELOPMENT.

897
00:37:44,480 --> 00:37:54,720
SO IT IS IN FEBRUARY 28 WHERE 

898
00:37:54,720 --> 00:37:56,600
YOU SEE THAT WATSON AND 

899
00:37:56,600 --> 00:37:58,520
FRANKLIN, THE DOUBLE HELIX, USES

900
00:37:58,520 --> 00:37:59,280
A SLIDE RULE.

901
00:37:59,280 --> 00:38:02,600
THAT WAS THE COMPUTER OF THE 

902
00:38:02,600 --> 00:38:02,960
DAYS.

903
00:38:02,960 --> 00:38:07,680
AND OF COURSE THEY HAVE -- THIS 

904
00:38:07,680 --> 00:38:10,640
WAS A VERY, VERY FUNDAMENTAL 

905
00:38:10,640 --> 00:38:15,000
DISCOVERY FROM ALL PERSPECTIVES.

906
00:38:15,000 --> 00:38:16,440
THEY HAD IN THE EVENING BRAGGING

907
00:38:16,440 --> 00:38:21,080
WE HAVE FOUND THE MOLECULE OF 

908
00:38:21,080 --> 00:38:21,280
LIFE.

909
00:38:21,280 --> 00:38:22,640
BUT THE QUESTION IS, WHAT WAS 

910
00:38:22,640 --> 00:38:24,360
THE MOST IMPORTANT ASPECT OF 

911
00:38:24,360 --> 00:38:25,800
DISCOVERING THE DOUBLE HELIX?

912
00:38:25,800 --> 00:38:28,760
THE DOUBLE HELIX IS A VERY, VERY

913
00:38:28,760 --> 00:38:29,440
COMPLEX MOLECULE.

914
00:38:29,440 --> 00:38:30,640
VERY DIFFICULT TO UNDERSTAND HOW

915
00:38:30,640 --> 00:38:33,560
IT REPLICATES.

916
00:38:33,560 --> 00:38:36,600
AND WE WON'T BE LABOR THAT POINT

917
00:38:36,600 --> 00:38:39,240
BUT THAT WAS A CHALLENGE IN 

918
00:38:39,240 --> 00:38:40,280
EARLY TIME.

919
00:38:40,280 --> 00:38:41,680
I FOUND AN INTERESTING -- YES, 

920
00:38:41,680 --> 00:38:43,440
THIS IS THE COMPLEXITY OF 

921
00:38:43,440 --> 00:38:45,200
REPLICATION BECAUSE ONE STRAND 

922
00:38:45,200 --> 00:38:47,320
IS GOING DOWNWARDS, ANOTHER 

923
00:38:47,320 --> 00:38:48,080
UPWARDS, AND THERE ARE DIFFERENT

924
00:38:48,080 --> 00:38:50,120
MEANS OF REPLICATING THAT WE 

925
00:38:50,120 --> 00:38:50,880
WON'T DEVELOP.

926
00:38:50,880 --> 00:38:56,160
BUT IN AN INTERESTING REVIEW, IN

927
00:38:56,160 --> 00:39:02,040
1953, BY HUGO TERRELL, 

928
00:39:02,040 --> 00:39:05,680
FORTHCOMING SWEDISH NOBEL 

929
00:39:05,680 --> 00:39:08,120
WRITER, IN SWEDEN HE WRITES THE 

930
00:39:08,120 --> 00:39:08,920
FOLLOWING, GIVES A VERY GOOD 

931
00:39:08,920 --> 00:39:11,920
PICTURE OF THE WAY OF THINKING 

932
00:39:11,920 --> 00:39:12,480
AT THIS TIME.

933
00:39:12,480 --> 00:39:14,640
SO, HE'S TALKING NOW ABOUT THE 

934
00:39:14,640 --> 00:39:15,960
STRUCTURE OF INSULIN.

935
00:39:15,960 --> 00:39:17,880
SO THE INDEPENDENT AMINO ACIDS 

936
00:39:17,880 --> 00:39:20,200
DO NOT SHOW A TENDENCY TO 

937
00:39:20,200 --> 00:39:21,640
DISPLAY ANY KIND OF PERIOD CITY,

938
00:39:21,640 --> 00:39:22,960
BUT APPEAR TO BE POSITIONED 

939
00:39:22,960 --> 00:39:24,040
WITHOUT ANY RULE AFTER EACH 

940
00:39:24,040 --> 00:39:24,800
OTHER.

941
00:39:24,800 --> 00:39:27,640
HOWEVER, ALWAYS IN A GIVEN 

942
00:39:27,640 --> 00:39:27,840
PLACE.

943
00:39:27,840 --> 00:39:30,440
ALL THE SLIN MOLECULES WERE 

944
00:39:30,440 --> 00:39:30,760
IDENTICAL.

945
00:39:30,760 --> 00:39:32,680
THERE ARE NO REVERSALS IN 

946
00:39:32,680 --> 00:39:35,960
POSITION OF RELATED AMINO ACIDS 

947
00:39:35,960 --> 00:39:39,720
LIKE, FOR EXAMPLE, LEUCINE AND 

948
00:39:39,720 --> 00:39:40,440
ISOLEUCINE.

949
00:39:40,440 --> 00:39:41,760
THUS EACH INSULIN MOLECULE 

950
00:39:41,760 --> 00:39:43,880
SHOULD BE EXACTLY IDENTICAL TO 

951
00:39:43,880 --> 00:39:44,160
OTHERS.

952
00:39:44,160 --> 00:39:46,440
AND EARLIER ONE HAS BEEN BEEN 

953
00:39:46,440 --> 00:39:47,840
RELUCTANT TO BELIEVE THAT 

954
00:39:47,840 --> 00:39:49,160
PROTEIN MOLECULES SHOULD BE 

955
00:39:49,160 --> 00:39:50,040
REPRODUCIBLE INTO THE SMALLEST 

956
00:39:50,040 --> 00:39:50,280
DETAIL.

957
00:39:50,280 --> 00:39:53,200
BUT HOW WOULD IT BE POSSIBLE TO 

958
00:39:53,200 --> 00:39:54,120
CONCEPTUALIZE THE SYNTHESIS OF 

959
00:39:54,120 --> 00:39:54,520
PROTEINS.

960
00:39:54,520 --> 00:39:56,720
HOW ON EARTH CAN IT BE DONE.

961
00:39:56,720 --> 00:39:59,600
IF THERE IS NO PERIOD CITY OR 

962
00:39:59,600 --> 00:40:00,920
OTHER PERMED ORDER THAT CAN BE 

963
00:40:00,920 --> 00:40:03,920
TRACED IN THE POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS

964
00:40:03,920 --> 00:40:04,960
THAT FORM PROTEINS ONE WOULD BE 

965
00:40:04,960 --> 00:40:07,040
FORCED TO ASSUME THAT THE 

966
00:40:07,040 --> 00:40:10,840
FORMATION OF EVEN THE SIMPLEST 

967
00:40:10,840 --> 00:40:14,640
PROTEIN LIKE INSULIN WOULD 

968
00:40:14,640 --> 00:40:16,000
REQUIRE PERHAPS SOME 50 

969
00:40:16,000 --> 00:40:16,960
DIFFERENT ABSOLUTELY SPECIFIC 

970
00:40:16,960 --> 00:40:17,920
ENZYMES TO ATTACH EACH 

971
00:40:17,920 --> 00:40:20,480
INDIVIDUAL AMINO ACID, ONE AT A 

972
00:40:20,480 --> 00:40:22,440
TIME, UNTIL FINALLY THE CHAIN IS

973
00:40:22,440 --> 00:40:22,680
COMPLETE.

974
00:40:22,680 --> 00:40:24,280
THIS IS ADVANCED CHEMIST IN 

975
00:40:24,280 --> 00:40:26,280
SWEDEN NOT HAVING AN IDEA IF 

976
00:40:26,280 --> 00:40:28,160
THIS IS SOMETHING THAT WILL BE 

977
00:40:28,160 --> 00:40:31,080
CALLED INFORMATION MOLECULES.

978
00:40:31,080 --> 00:40:32,680
THAT IS IN 1953.

979
00:40:32,680 --> 00:40:35,480
AND SO I WOULD ARGUE THAT THE 

980
00:40:35,480 --> 00:40:38,280
MOST IMPORTANT ASPECT OF DNA WAS

981
00:40:38,280 --> 00:40:41,960
THE REALIZATION THAT THERE WAS 

982
00:40:41,960 --> 00:40:44,640
AN INFORMATION SYSTEM, THAT 

983
00:40:44,640 --> 00:40:46,400
THERE WAS A CODE THAT THE 

984
00:40:46,400 --> 00:40:48,120
NUCLEIC ACID COULD DECIDE THE 

985
00:40:48,120 --> 00:40:50,760
SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACID OF A 

986
00:40:50,760 --> 00:40:51,080
PROTEIN.

987
00:40:51,080 --> 00:40:53,040
AND THAT WAS COMPLETELY NEW.

988
00:40:53,040 --> 00:40:56,840
AND IT WAS SO NEW THAT IT TOOK A

989
00:40:56,840 --> 00:40:58,680
LONG TIME TO REALLY APPRECIATE 

990
00:40:58,680 --> 00:41:00,240
THAT THIS WAS THE WAY IT WAS.

991
00:41:00,240 --> 00:41:04,000
AND WE'LL SEE IT IN A MOMENT THE

992
00:41:04,000 --> 00:41:07,480
FIRST NOMINATION FOR A NOBEL 

993
00:41:07,480 --> 00:41:08,800
PRIZE FOR THE DISCOVERY OF DNA 

994
00:41:08,800 --> 00:41:11,320
DID NOT COME UNTIL 1960.

995
00:41:11,320 --> 00:41:12,760
SEVEN YEARS AFTER DISCOVERY OF 

996
00:41:12,760 --> 00:41:15,240
THE DOUBLE HELIX, WHY IS THAT?

997
00:41:15,240 --> 00:41:16,640
THERE WERE A NUMBER OF PRIZES, 

998
00:41:16,640 --> 00:41:20,640
ONE REALIZED NOW, FROM 1965.

999
00:41:20,640 --> 00:41:24,840
AND ON, I'LL SKIP THAT, FROM 

1000
00:41:24,840 --> 00:41:27,840
1957 WHEN THERE WAS A PRIZE IN 

1001
00:41:27,840 --> 00:41:31,960
CHEMISTRY TO TODD AND CAN FOLLOW

1002
00:41:31,960 --> 00:41:35,280
THE RSV IN NOBEL LAUREATE.

1003
00:41:35,280 --> 00:41:37,200
SO IN 1955 IT COMES IT SEEMS IT 

1004
00:41:37,200 --> 00:41:39,200
MUST BE THE NUCLEIC ACID THAT'S 

1005
00:41:39,200 --> 00:41:40,760
CARRYING THE GENETIC 

1006
00:41:40,760 --> 00:41:41,080
INFORMATION.

1007
00:41:41,080 --> 00:41:42,560
BUT NOT IMMEDIATELY AFTER '53, 

1008
00:41:42,560 --> 00:41:45,160
LIKE IT WOULD BE PRONE TO.

1009
00:41:45,160 --> 00:41:46,560
SO FROM 1953 ONWARD.

1010
00:41:46,560 --> 00:41:48,920
AND THERE'S A PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY

1011
00:41:48,920 --> 00:41:52,640
TO TODD FOR HIS WORK ON NUCLEO 

1012
00:41:52,640 --> 00:41:55,040
TIDES AND NUCLEOTIDE COENZYMES.

1013
00:41:55,040 --> 00:42:01,120
AND THEN COMES A PRIZE IN '58 TO

1014
00:42:01,120 --> 00:42:03,040
BEADLE AND TATUM FOR THEIR 

1015
00:42:03,040 --> 00:42:05,480
DISCOVERY THAT GENES ACT BY 

1016
00:42:05,480 --> 00:42:07,560
REGULATING DEFINITE CHEMICAL 

1017
00:42:07,560 --> 00:42:07,800
EVENTS.

1018
00:42:07,800 --> 00:42:11,320
ONE GENE/ONE ENZYME CONCEPT THAT

1019
00:42:11,320 --> 00:42:12,680
ARE ALSO FUNDAMENTAL.

1020
00:42:12,680 --> 00:42:15,920
AND HAVE THE PRIZE IN 1958 WAS 

1021
00:42:15,920 --> 00:42:20,760
GIVEN TO JOSH LEDERBERG, A VERY 

1022
00:42:20,760 --> 00:42:24,040
YOUNG MOLECULAR BIOLOGY WOULD 

1023
00:42:24,040 --> 00:42:28,000
USE THE TERM AT THE TIME AND HE 

1024
00:42:28,000 --> 00:42:29,400
HAS GENETIC RECOMBINATION AND 

1025
00:42:29,400 --> 00:42:30,480
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GENETIC 

1026
00:42:30,480 --> 00:42:31,560
MATERIAL OF BACTERIA.

1027
00:42:31,560 --> 00:42:35,080
HE WAS ONLY 33 YEARS OLD.

1028
00:42:35,080 --> 00:42:36,440
HE'S THE SECOND-YOUNGEST OF ALL 

1029
00:42:36,440 --> 00:42:38,200
NOBEL LAUREATES.

1030
00:42:38,200 --> 00:42:41,440
YOUNGEST ONE WAS BANTINE PRIZE 

1031
00:42:41,440 --> 00:42:43,960
FOR INSULIN, WHEN HE WAS 32 

1032
00:42:43,960 --> 00:42:46,720
WHERE GENE WATSON WAS 34 WHEN HE

1033
00:42:46,720 --> 00:42:52,760
RECEIVED HIS PRIZE IN 1962.

1034
00:42:52,760 --> 00:42:54,560
GEORGE LEDERBERG IS EXTREMELY 

1035
00:42:54,560 --> 00:42:55,840
INFLUENTIAL AND WAY AHEAD OF HIS

1036
00:42:55,840 --> 00:42:58,080
TIME BUT THE OTHER PRIZE WAS 

1037
00:42:58,080 --> 00:43:00,160
GIVEN IN NUCLEIC ACID WORK ALSO 

1038
00:43:00,160 --> 00:43:07,240
IN 1959, THE PRIZE TO CHOA AND 

1039
00:43:07,240 --> 00:43:09,160
KORBBURG BUT IT'S AN 

1040
00:43:09,160 --> 00:43:11,040
EMBARRASSING PRIZE BECAUSE WAS 

1041
00:43:11,040 --> 00:43:13,840
FOR MECHANISM BIOLOGICAL 

1042
00:43:13,840 --> 00:43:18,000
SYNTHESIS OF RIBONUCLEIC ACID 

1043
00:43:18,000 --> 00:43:22,440
AND DEOX RIBONUCLEIC ACID.

1044
00:43:22,440 --> 00:43:25,440
AND THEY HAD AN DNA RNA 

1045
00:43:25,440 --> 00:43:27,040
REPLICATING SYSTEM WHICH DOESN'T

1046
00:43:27,040 --> 00:43:32,200
EXIST IN THE NUCLEAR CELLS.

1047
00:43:32,200 --> 00:43:33,760
HIS TITLES WERE ALL WRONG 

1048
00:43:33,760 --> 00:43:37,360
BECAUSE ALL THE RNAS IS FROM 

1049
00:43:37,360 --> 00:43:37,680
DNA.

1050
00:43:37,680 --> 00:43:41,320
AND ARTHUR KORNBERG HE WAS 

1051
00:43:41,320 --> 00:43:42,640
CLOSER BUT THEY FOUND OUT THE 

1052
00:43:42,640 --> 00:43:44,160
ENZYME HE FOUND WASN'T THE 

1053
00:43:44,160 --> 00:43:46,200
ENZYME AS REPLICATING DNA.

1054
00:43:46,200 --> 00:43:49,280
IT WAS BREAKING DOWN DNA.

1055
00:43:49,280 --> 00:43:51,000
AND IT WAS HIS SON, WHO, SOME 

1056
00:43:51,000 --> 00:43:52,840
YEARS LATER, FROM THE RIGHT 

1057
00:43:52,840 --> 00:43:54,480
ENZYME, THAT IS ACTUALLY 

1058
00:43:54,480 --> 00:43:56,760
REPLICATING THE DNA.

1059
00:43:56,760 --> 00:44:01,360
AND SO I THINK THE COMMITTEE WAS

1060
00:44:01,360 --> 00:44:03,160
EAGER TO RECOGNIZE THE ROLE OF 

1061
00:44:03,160 --> 00:44:06,400
NUCLEIC ACID AND MADE 

1062
00:44:06,400 --> 00:44:09,720
PREDETERMINED DECISIONS TO BE 

1063
00:44:09,720 --> 00:44:09,960
HONEST.

1064
00:44:09,960 --> 00:44:11,920
AND THEN AGAIN SOMETHING AS 

1065
00:44:11,920 --> 00:44:13,320
IMPORTANT AS THE DISCOVERY OF 

1066
00:44:13,320 --> 00:44:16,960
THE DOUBLE HELIX STRUCTURE OF 

1067
00:44:16,960 --> 00:44:20,080
DNA, THUF PROMPTED YOU TO THINK 

1068
00:44:20,080 --> 00:44:20,680
NOMINATIONS FOR NOBEL PRIZE 

1069
00:44:20,680 --> 00:44:23,560
RATHER QUICKLY BUT IT DID NOT.

1070
00:44:23,560 --> 00:44:25,200
THE FIRST NOMINATION IN 1960, 

1071
00:44:25,200 --> 00:44:27,720
AND IT'S BY BRAGG WHO HAS VESTED

1072
00:44:27,720 --> 00:44:29,520
INTEREST IN THIS.

1073
00:44:29,520 --> 00:44:35,560
HE WANTED TO DISTRIBUTE TWO 

1074
00:44:35,560 --> 00:44:37,160
NOBEL PRIZES, ONE TO KANDEL AND 

1075
00:44:37,160 --> 00:44:38,720
PERUSE FOR CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND 

1076
00:44:38,720 --> 00:44:40,840
HE THOUGHT I CAN PUT IT INTO 

1077
00:44:40,840 --> 00:44:43,560
PHYSICS AND I CAN GET WATSON AND

1078
00:44:43,560 --> 00:44:44,800
CRICK INTO CHEMISTRY.

1079
00:44:44,800 --> 00:44:47,440
BUT IT CERTAINLY DIDN'T WORK 

1080
00:44:47,440 --> 00:44:47,640
OUT.

1081
00:44:47,640 --> 00:44:50,640
IT WAS ASELIAS WHO DECIDED WE'LL

1082
00:44:50,640 --> 00:44:51,480
SPLIT IT.

1083
00:44:51,480 --> 00:44:54,640
SO THE CHEMISTRY PRIZE WILL BE 

1084
00:44:54,640 --> 00:44:58,720
TO THE PROTEIN 

1085
00:44:58,720 --> 00:45:00,040
CRYSTALLOGRAPHERS, AND ONE WILL 

1086
00:45:00,040 --> 00:45:02,200
TAKE CARE OF WATSON AND CRICK 

1087
00:45:02,200 --> 00:45:04,520
AND WILKINS ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF

1088
00:45:04,520 --> 00:45:04,760
MEDICINE.

1089
00:45:04,760 --> 00:45:07,480
YOU CAN SEE HERE THE NOMINATION,

1090
00:45:07,480 --> 00:45:08,680
WHICH IS NOT VERY DRAMATIC.

1091
00:45:08,680 --> 00:45:11,520
OF COURSE, IT ACCUMULATES IN 

1092
00:45:11,520 --> 00:45:11,800
1962.

1093
00:45:11,800 --> 00:45:13,640
AND IT WAS VERY CLEAR, THOUGH, 

1094
00:45:13,640 --> 00:45:14,680
WE MUST GIVE A NOBEL PRIZE FOR 

1095
00:45:14,680 --> 00:45:18,480
THE DISCOVERY OF A STRUCTURE OF 

1096
00:45:18,480 --> 00:45:19,640
DNA, WHICH WAS WATSON.

1097
00:45:19,640 --> 00:45:20,800
AWARDED IN 1962.

1098
00:45:20,800 --> 00:45:24,240
AND HERE YOU CAN SEE THE SWEDISH

1099
00:45:24,240 --> 00:45:27,520
KING GIVES A HANDSHAKE FOR 

1100
00:45:27,520 --> 00:45:29,880
FRANCIS FOR

1101
00:45:29,880 --> 00:45:31,080
FRANCIS CRICK, AND YOU HAVE 

1102
00:45:31,080 --> 00:45:32,160
JOHNSON IN THE BACKGROUND AND 

1103
00:45:32,160 --> 00:45:34,720
FURTHER ON WILKINS AND PERUSE 

1104
00:45:34,720 --> 00:45:38,960
AND CANDRELS.

1105
00:45:38,960 --> 00:45:41,960
AND IT WAS A VERY IMPRESSIVE NEW

1106
00:45:41,960 --> 00:45:44,040
ADVANCE IN SCIENCE THAT WAS 

1107
00:45:44,040 --> 00:45:47,800
RECOGNIZED BY THIS PRIZE.

1108
00:45:47,800 --> 00:45:50,800
SO WHAT DID THESE THREE EVEN 

1109
00:45:50,800 --> 00:45:52,320
TALK ABOUT IN THE NOBEL 

1110
00:45:52,320 --> 00:45:53,160
LECTURES.

1111
00:45:53,160 --> 00:45:54,440
WILKINS, HE ACTUALLY TALKED 

1112
00:45:54,440 --> 00:45:57,440
ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF DNA.

1113
00:45:57,440 --> 00:45:59,800
BUT WATSON, HE BARELY MENTIONED 

1114
00:45:59,800 --> 00:46:00,040
DNA.

1115
00:46:00,040 --> 00:46:02,160
HE TALKED ABOUT THE WORLD OF RNA

1116
00:46:02,160 --> 00:46:05,000
AND HIS STATUS OF TRYING TO 

1117
00:46:05,000 --> 00:46:07,360
IDENTIFY MESSENGER RNA AND OTHER

1118
00:46:07,360 --> 00:46:08,160
TYPES OF RNA.

1119
00:46:08,160 --> 00:46:10,800
AND CRICK, HE ONLY SPOKE ABOUT 

1120
00:46:10,800 --> 00:46:12,560
THE GENETIC CODE.

1121
00:46:12,560 --> 00:46:14,640
MENTIONING THE TRIP LET CODE 33 

1122
00:46:14,640 --> 00:46:17,080
TIMES IN HIS LECTURE.

1123
00:46:17,080 --> 00:46:20,520
THEY WERE ALL WAY AHEAD OF THE 

1124
00:46:20,520 --> 00:46:23,600
DISCOVERY OF THE DNA AS A DOUBLE

1125
00:46:23,600 --> 00:46:24,840
HELIX.

1126
00:46:24,840 --> 00:46:28,040
AND THIS ILLUSTRATES HOW 

1127
00:46:28,040 --> 00:46:29,760
CATALYTIC THIS EARLY DISCOVERY 

1128
00:46:29,760 --> 00:46:30,280
WAS.

1129
00:46:30,280 --> 00:46:32,920
ONCE IT GOT STARTED, THERE WAS 

1130
00:46:32,920 --> 00:46:34,320
ENORMOUS SPEED OF DEVELOPMENT.

1131
00:46:34,320 --> 00:46:37,040
EVERYONE UNDERSTOOD THAT IF YOU 

1132
00:46:37,040 --> 00:46:39,320
CAN REALLY GET AT THIS WE WILL 

1133
00:46:39,320 --> 00:46:44,280
HANDLE THE FUNDAMENTALS OF 

1134
00:46:44,280 --> 00:46:45,560
BIOLOGY THE ROLE OF STORING DNA 

1135
00:46:45,560 --> 00:46:46,760
AND THE EXPRESSION OF THE GENES 

1136
00:46:46,760 --> 00:46:49,200
OF THE DNA AND RNA AND THE 

1137
00:46:49,200 --> 00:46:50,440
DIFFERENT FORMS OF RNA.

1138
00:46:50,440 --> 00:46:53,600
ALL THIS WAS NEW AND ADVANCED 

1139
00:46:53,600 --> 00:46:59,240
WITH AN ENORMOUS SPEED DURING 

1140
00:46:59,240 --> 00:47:05,760
THE 1950S AND THE 60S.

1141
00:47:05,760 --> 00:47:12,240
NOOUKZ .

1142
00:47:12,240 --> 00:47:18,960
AND THE TO FURTHER THE CONCEPT.

1143
00:47:18,960 --> 00:47:20,400
BENZER SINGLE NUCLEOTIDES OF A 

1144
00:47:20,400 --> 00:47:24,240
SINGLE GENE AND THE OTHER IS MY 

1145
00:47:24,240 --> 00:47:34,800
TRUE HERO IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, 

1146
00:47:35,960 --> 00:47:38,080
BRENNER, TRIPLICATE CODE, IN A 

1147
00:47:38,080 --> 00:47:40,720
GENE IN TRIPLICATE AND YOU HAD 

1148
00:47:40,720 --> 00:47:41,880
DELETION, AFTER THREE DELETION 

1149
00:47:41,880 --> 00:47:43,200
MUTANTS YOU GO BACK IN THE RIGHT

1150
00:47:43,200 --> 00:47:45,320
READING FRAME.

1151
00:47:45,320 --> 00:47:48,800
AND HE HAS MADE MANY, MANY OTHER

1152
00:47:48,800 --> 00:47:50,120
CRUCIALLY CONTRIBUTIONS TO 

1153
00:47:50,120 --> 00:47:51,320
SCIENCE.

1154
00:47:51,320 --> 00:47:53,800
FORTUNATELY, WE MANAGED TO GET 

1155
00:47:53,800 --> 00:47:57,120
HIM A NOBEL PRIZE IN 2002.

1156
00:47:57,120 --> 00:48:00,760
I COULD SPEAK A LOT ABOUT HIM 

1157
00:48:00,760 --> 00:48:03,800
BECAUSE HE IS A REMARKABLE 

1158
00:48:03,800 --> 00:48:06,640
PERSON AND SCIENTIST.

1159
00:48:06,640 --> 00:48:13,120
WHAT ABOUT SHARGROF, AN AUSTRIAN

1160
00:48:13,120 --> 00:48:14,960
CHEMIST CAME TO THE COUNTRY IN 

1161
00:48:14,960 --> 00:48:18,080
THE SECOND WORLD WAR.

1162
00:48:18,080 --> 00:48:22,680
AND HE SETTLED AT I THINK AT 

1163
00:48:22,680 --> 00:48:24,840
COLUMBIA, AND HE DEVELOPED THE 

1164
00:48:24,840 --> 00:48:26,680
TECHNIQUES, VERY IMPORTANT OF 

1165
00:48:26,680 --> 00:48:30,160
ITS TIME OF ELECTROPHORESIS AND 

1166
00:48:30,160 --> 00:48:32,440
SEPARATING THE NUCLEOTIDES OF 

1167
00:48:32,440 --> 00:48:33,760
NUCLEIC ACID.

1168
00:48:33,760 --> 00:48:37,840
AND HE FOUND A VERY FUNDAMENTAL,

1169
00:48:37,840 --> 00:48:40,440
THAT IS, ALWAYS ABSOLUTE 

1170
00:48:40,440 --> 00:48:44,640
PROPORTIONS OF A AND T AND G AND

1171
00:48:44,640 --> 00:48:46,080
C.

1172
00:48:46,080 --> 00:48:49,800
AND THIS IS SUCH A SOLID 

1173
00:48:49,800 --> 00:48:50,760
FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE THAT IT 

1174
00:48:50,760 --> 00:48:52,320
SHOULD HAVE RUNNING A BELL TO 

1175
00:48:52,320 --> 00:48:55,320
HIM THAT THIS MUST BE OF 

1176
00:48:55,320 --> 00:48:59,760
ABSOLUTELY CRITICAL VALUE BUT HE

1177
00:48:59,760 --> 00:49:01,760
DIDN'T FULLY APPRECIATE IT.

1178
00:49:01,760 --> 00:49:04,160
HIS PUBLICATION ABOUT THE DATES 

1179
00:49:04,160 --> 00:49:08,120
OF RATIOS IS CITED IN THE WATSON

1180
00:49:08,120 --> 00:49:13,440
AND CRICK APRIL PAPER IN 1953.

1181
00:49:13,440 --> 00:49:14,920
WHEREAS, AVERY IS NOT CITED IN 

1182
00:49:14,920 --> 00:49:16,880
THAT PAPER, WHICH IS AN 

1183
00:49:16,880 --> 00:49:17,280
EMBARRASSMENT.

1184
00:49:17,280 --> 00:49:20,680
BUT CHARGRAFF IS.

1185
00:49:20,680 --> 00:49:23,800
WHEN WATSON AND CRICK RECEIVED 

1186
00:49:23,800 --> 00:49:34,400
THE NOBEL PRIZE,   CHARGRAFF WA 

1187
00:49:37,280 --> 00:49:37,440
UPSET.

1188
00:49:37,440 --> 00:49:38,800
AND HE WAS WORTHY OF THE PRIZE 

1189
00:49:38,800 --> 00:49:40,640
AND THE IDEAS OF COMBINING HIM 

1190
00:49:40,640 --> 00:49:42,640
WITH SOME OTHER MAJOR 

1191
00:49:42,640 --> 00:49:45,080
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIELD.

1192
00:49:45,080 --> 00:49:47,320
BUT HE NEVER RECEIVED THE PRIZE.

1193
00:49:47,320 --> 00:49:49,720
SEEMED TO BE RATHER OF A BIT OF 

1194
00:49:49,720 --> 00:49:51,320
COMPLEXING AND BITTER PERSON.

1195
00:49:51,320 --> 00:49:53,280
AND THEN, OF COURSE, IT MOVED ON

1196
00:49:53,280 --> 00:49:57,040
AND I WON'T BELABOR THAT, BUT SO

1197
00:49:57,040 --> 00:50:00,680
I'VE WRITTEN IN MY FOURTH BOOK 

1198
00:50:00,680 --> 00:50:10,560
ABOUT THE WHOLE CRONIN AND 

1199
00:50:10,560 --> 00:50:10,840
NIRENBERG.

1200
00:50:10,840 --> 00:50:12,640
I HAD SOME DISCUSSIONS BUT NEVER

1201
00:50:12,640 --> 00:50:15,760
PAID A VISIT LOOKING FORWARD 

1202
00:50:15,760 --> 00:50:16,040
TODAY.

1203
00:50:16,040 --> 00:50:17,600
NIRENBERG A FASCINATING PERSON, 

1204
00:50:17,600 --> 00:50:20,640
OF COURSE, FOR THE WAY HE 

1205
00:50:20,640 --> 00:50:21,640
ORCHESTRATED THIS.

1206
00:50:21,640 --> 00:50:26,200
WHEREAS, HOLLEY MADE A SINGLE 

1207
00:50:26,200 --> 00:50:26,840
CONTRIBUTION TRANSFERRING THE 

1208
00:50:26,840 --> 00:50:30,480
DNA AND KHORANA WAS AN 

1209
00:50:30,480 --> 00:50:31,480
INCREDIBLE CHEMIST AND 

1210
00:50:31,480 --> 00:50:34,360
DEVELOPING METHODS AND HE WAS 

1211
00:50:34,360 --> 00:50:38,960
TRAINED IN ENGLAND, AND 

1212
00:50:38,960 --> 00:50:42,080
THROUGHOUT HIS LIFE IMPRESSIVE 

1213
00:50:42,080 --> 00:50:43,360
TEACHER SO FORTH.

1214
00:50:43,360 --> 00:50:46,280
SO WHEN WE COME TO THE 1969 

1215
00:50:46,280 --> 00:50:48,400
PRIZE, ONE CAN SAY THAT THIS IS 

1216
00:50:48,400 --> 00:50:52,000
REALLY COMING QUITE LATE BECAUSE

1217
00:50:52,000 --> 00:50:55,080
THE FUNDAMENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS 

1218
00:50:55,080 --> 00:51:00,200
THAT MAX DELBRUCK AND HERSHEY 

1219
00:51:00,200 --> 00:51:07,320
DID IT WAS WAY IN THE LATE 40S, 

1220
00:51:07,320 --> 00:51:13,120
AND AFTER THAT MAX DELBRUCK LEFT

1221
00:51:13,120 --> 00:51:15,080
STARTED A NEW SYSTEM.

1222
00:51:15,080 --> 00:51:18,160
AND IN HIS NOBEL LECTURE HE 

1223
00:51:18,160 --> 00:51:20,480
BARREL TALKED ABOUT HIS PHAGE 

1224
00:51:20,480 --> 00:51:26,760
WORK BUT CURRENT WORK ON 

1225
00:51:26,760 --> 00:51:29,880
METPLESIA AND WAY BACK HE 

1226
00:51:29,880 --> 00:51:32,360
INCLUDED IN THE LECTURE HE 

1227
00:51:32,360 --> 00:51:34,800
REFERRED TO THE THREE-MAN PAPER,

1228
00:51:34,800 --> 00:51:35,360
HISTORIC DOCUMENT.

1229
00:51:35,360 --> 00:51:37,440
IT WAS A BIT LATE.

1230
00:51:37,440 --> 00:51:39,720
AND HERSHEY WAS A TRUE 

1231
00:51:39,720 --> 00:51:40,080
EXPERIMENTER.

1232
00:51:40,080 --> 00:51:41,520
HE DID MANY, MANY IMPORTANT 

1233
00:51:41,520 --> 00:51:43,400
CONTRIBUTIONS AFTER THE EARLY 

1234
00:51:43,400 --> 00:51:47,160
1940S, BUT HE WAS A PART OF THAT

1235
00:51:47,160 --> 00:51:53,560
OF USING PHAGES TO ILLUSTRATE 

1236
00:51:53,560 --> 00:51:57,160
THE FUNDAMENTAL CONDIMENTS OF 

1237
00:51:57,160 --> 00:51:57,400
GENETICS.

1238
00:51:57,400 --> 00:52:01,320
AND LURIA DID ALSO.

1239
00:52:01,320 --> 00:52:03,880
HIS WORK MOSTLY IN THE 40S AND 

1240
00:52:03,880 --> 00:52:05,360
EARLY '50s.

1241
00:52:05,360 --> 00:52:07,880
AND HE HAD ALSO SHIFTED SYSTEM 

1242
00:52:07,880 --> 00:52:09,680
AT THE TIME IN '69.

1243
00:52:09,680 --> 00:52:11,720
BUT STILL IT'S GOOD THAT WE 

1244
00:52:11,720 --> 00:52:19,480
MANAGED TO GIVE A PRIZE TO THESE

1245
00:52:19,480 --> 00:52:22,040
PIONEERS OF GENETICS AND THE 

1246
00:52:22,040 --> 00:52:25,080
FUNDAMENTAL DISCOVERY DESCRIBING

1247
00:52:25,080 --> 00:52:27,640
WHAT IS A GENE FINISHING THE 

1248
00:52:27,640 --> 00:52:29,800
TECHNIQUES HAVE DEVELOPED WHERE 

1249
00:52:29,800 --> 00:52:31,480
PHAGES, THE DNA OF THE 

1250
00:52:31,480 --> 00:52:35,720
PHAGEHEAD, AND THE WAY IT CAN BE

1251
00:52:35,720 --> 00:52:37,880
INJECTED INTO CELLS, WE LEARNED 

1252
00:52:37,880 --> 00:52:41,680
A LOT OF DETAILS ABOUT THAT.

1253
00:52:41,680 --> 00:52:44,480
AND WHAT ABOUT THIS ORIGINAL 

1254
00:52:44,480 --> 00:52:46,360
QUESTION, WAS IT MEANINGFUL TO 

1255
00:52:46,360 --> 00:52:50,120
DISCUSS IF YOU COULD DEFINE THE 

1256
00:52:50,120 --> 00:52:51,080
SIZE OF A GENE.

1257
00:52:51,080 --> 00:52:54,240
WELL, IF YOU LOOK AT IT TODAY, 

1258
00:52:54,240 --> 00:52:55,920
CURRENTLY KNOWN THE SIZE OF THE 

1259
00:52:55,920 --> 00:52:58,480
VIRUS ARE ENORMOUS, THIS 

1260
00:52:58,480 --> 00:53:00,120
VARIATION RANGES FROM 76 BASE 

1261
00:53:00,120 --> 00:53:01,600
PAIRS THAT CONSTITUTE ONE KIND 

1262
00:53:01,600 --> 00:53:05,040
OF TRANSFER RNA TO THE MUSCLE, 

1263
00:53:05,040 --> 00:53:06,800
ALL THE WAY TO THE MUSCLE 

1264
00:53:06,800 --> 00:53:09,520
PROTEIN TITIN WHICH HAS A 

1265
00:53:09,520 --> 00:53:10,840
HUNDRED THOUSAND BASE PAIRS.

1266
00:53:10,840 --> 00:53:12,160
SO ONE COULDN'T KNOW THAT AT THE

1267
00:53:12,160 --> 00:53:15,080
TIME, BUT TO ASK A QUESTION THE 

1268
00:53:15,080 --> 00:53:18,280
SIZE OF A GENE WASN'T REALLY IN 

1269
00:53:18,280 --> 00:53:22,120
LATER PERSPECTIVE VERY 

1270
00:53:22,120 --> 00:53:22,880
MEANINGFUL.

1271
00:53:22,880 --> 00:53:25,560
SO I'VE SUMMARIZED THIS IN MY 

1272
00:53:25,560 --> 00:53:27,480
MOST RECENT BOOK, WHICH IS ABOUT

1273
00:53:27,480 --> 00:53:31,440
THE GENES, VIRUSES AND CELLULAR 

1274
00:53:31,440 --> 00:53:32,880
SIGNALLING, AND THIS IS ABOUT 

1275
00:53:32,880 --> 00:53:38,400
1969 PRIZE, 1970 PRIZE IS 

1276
00:53:38,400 --> 00:53:43,520
NEUROBIOLOGY, AND '71 IS THE 

1277
00:53:43,520 --> 00:53:44,360
CYCLIC AMP.

1278
00:53:44,360 --> 00:53:48,080
BUT I PUT ON THE PAGE HERE THE 

1279
00:53:48,080 --> 00:53:49,560
FIRST NOBEL LAUREATE IN 

1280
00:53:49,560 --> 00:53:52,160
PHYSIOLOGY MEDICINE.

1281
00:53:52,160 --> 00:53:57,520
HER NAME IS KATAGORY.

1282
00:53:57,520 --> 00:53:59,320
CZECH, MET HER IN MEDICAL SCHOOL

1283
00:53:59,320 --> 00:54:03,920
AND THEY WENT TO VIENNA AND FROM

1284
00:54:03,920 --> 00:54:05,600
THERE FELT IN 1920 THEY HAD TO 

1285
00:54:05,600 --> 00:54:08,040
LEAVE EUROPE AND HAD AN 

1286
00:54:08,040 --> 00:54:09,360
INCREDIBLE CAREER IN THIS 

1287
00:54:09,360 --> 00:54:10,880
COUNTRY.

1288
00:54:10,880 --> 00:54:13,360
AND THEY HAD A LABORATORY IN ST.

1289
00:54:13,360 --> 00:54:16,600
LOUIS THAT TRAINED SOME SEVEN TO

1290
00:54:16,600 --> 00:54:18,400
EIG

1291
00:54:18,400 --> 00:54:24,040
EIGHT FORTHCOMING NOBEL 

1292
00:54:24,040 --> 00:54:25,280
LAUREATES, AND WHEN YOUNG PEOPLE

1293
00:54:25,280 --> 00:54:27,000
ASK ME WHAT SHOULD I DO IN 

1294
00:54:27,000 --> 00:54:30,920
SCIENCE, CHOOSE YOUR MENTOR.

1295
00:54:30,920 --> 00:54:32,320
50 NOBEL LAUREATES HAVE WORKED 

1296
00:54:32,320 --> 00:54:32,880
IN LABORATORY.

1297
00:54:32,880 --> 00:54:34,680
AND SO THERE'S A UNIQUE LINEAGE 

1298
00:54:34,680 --> 00:54:36,560
THERE THEY STARTED THEIR 

1299
00:54:36,560 --> 00:54:39,760
REMARKABLE LINEAGE THAT INCLUDED

1300
00:54:39,760 --> 00:54:45,640
OCHOA, KORNBERG AND A EXCHANGE 

1301
00:54:45,640 --> 00:54:49,160
OF VERY QUALIFIED.

1302
00:54:49,160 --> 00:54:50,760
SO, I'M SORRY FOR THE 

1303
00:54:50,760 --> 00:54:52,480
INTERRUPTION THAT WE HAVE HAD, 

1304
00:54:52,480 --> 00:54:55,240
BUT I THINK I PUT AN END TO MY 

1305
00:54:55,240 --> 00:54:58,680
LECTURE HERE AND SIMPLY TO SAY 

1306
00:54:58,680 --> 00:55:03,880
THAT FOLLOWING THE GROWTH OF 

1307
00:55:03,880 --> 00:55:05,960
KNOWLEDGE, IT'S AN EXTRAORDINARY

1308
00:55:05,960 --> 00:55:09,160
JOY, BUT BECAUSE, FIRST OF ALL, 

1309
00:55:09,160 --> 00:55:10,960
YOU HAVE TO TRY FOR YOURSELF TO 

1310
00:55:10,960 --> 00:55:13,000
INTERPRET AND MAKE SURE THAT YOU

1311
00:55:13,000 --> 00:55:14,320
UNDERSTAND WHAT GOES ON AND THEN

1312
00:55:14,320 --> 00:55:17,600
YOU CAN TRY TO EXPLAIN IT.

1313
00:55:17,600 --> 00:55:19,360
AND WHAT ELSE, THERE IS MUCH 

1314
00:55:19,360 --> 00:55:21,320
MORE TO COME, BUT WHAT THIS WILL

1315
00:55:21,320 --> 00:55:23,600
BE, WE DON'T KNOW.

1316
00:55:23,600 --> 00:55:25,240
AND WITH THIS I THANK YOU FOR 

1317
00:55:25,240 --> 00:55:25,760
YOUR ATTENTION.

1318
00:55:25,760 --> 00:55:27,000
I APOLOGIZE AGAIN FOR THE 

1319
00:55:27,000 --> 00:55:27,680
PROBLEM WE HAD WITH THE SLIDES.

1320
00:55:27,680 --> 00:55:33,560
[APPLAUSE]

1321
00:55:33,560 --> 00:55:34,760
>> ANYBODY IN HERE THAT
WOULD 

1322
00:55:34,760 --> 00:55:36,480
LIKE TO ASK A QUESTION, USE THE 

1323
00:55:36,480 --> 00:55:36,720
MICS.

1324
00:55:36,720 --> 00:55:37,960
THERE'S ONE THAT CAME IN.

1325
00:55:37,960 --> 00:55:39,840
I'M GLAD YOU SHOWED THAT PHOTO 

1326
00:55:39,840 --> 00:55:43,000
OF A FEMALE LAUREATE.

1327
00:55:43,000 --> 00:55:45,720
IT'S RELATED TO THAT.

1328
00:55:45,720 --> 00:55:48,440
AND THE RELATIVE DEARTH OF 

1329
00:55:48,440 --> 00:55:50,840
FEMALE LAUREATES, FROM YOUR 

1330
00:55:50,840 --> 00:55:52,640
PERSPECTIVE AND INSIGHT OF THE 

1331
00:55:52,640 --> 00:55:54,200
NOBEL SELECTION COMMITTEE, DO 

1332
00:55:54,200 --> 00:55:55,080
YOU THINK ROSALIND FRANKLIN 

1333
00:55:55,080 --> 00:55:57,520
WOULD HAVE BEEN AWARDED THE 

1334
00:55:57,520 --> 00:56:01,720
NOBEL PRIZE HAD SHE NOT DIED?

1335
00:56:01,720 --> 00:56:02,560
>> ABSOLUTELY.

1336
00:56:02,560 --> 00:56:06,600
ONE CAN SEE THIS IN ALL THE 

1337
00:56:06,600 --> 00:56:07,920
REVIEWS THAT HAVE BEEN MADE SHE 

1338
00:56:07,920 --> 00:56:09,280
WAS FULLY ACCREDITED FROM THIS 

1339
00:56:09,280 --> 00:56:12,120
THAT MEANS THAT WILKINS WOULD 

1340
00:56:12,120 --> 00:56:13,720
HAVE TO BE LEFT OUT BECAUSE IT'S

1341
00:56:13,720 --> 00:56:15,200
A MAXIMUM OF THREE.

1342
00:56:15,200 --> 00:56:18,040
BUT NO, I THINK FULL AGREEMENT 

1343
00:56:18,040 --> 00:56:18,960
ON THAT.

1344
00:56:18,960 --> 00:56:21,600
AND SHE CONTINUED TO DO VERY 

1345
00:56:21,600 --> 00:56:27,080
IMPORTANT WORK IN THE FEW YEARS 

1346
00:56:27,080 --> 00:56:28,720
SHE HAD AT HER DISPOSAL. 

1347
00:56:28,720 --> 00:56:29,520
>> THE ARGUMENT THAT
SOMETHING 

1348
00:56:29,520 --> 00:56:31,120
AFTER A WHILE IS AWARDED AFTER A

1349
00:56:31,120 --> 00:56:34,240
DEATH BUT NOT IN THE SCIENCES 

1350
00:56:34,240 --> 00:56:34,480
PERHAPS.

1351
00:56:34,480 --> 00:56:38,000
IN THE PEACE PRIZE IN THE 

1352
00:56:38,000 --> 00:56:39,120
LITERATURE. 

1353
00:56:39,120 --> 00:56:41,440
>> THERE'S NO -- YOU
CAN'T 

1354
00:56:41,440 --> 00:56:44,000
GIVE -- A PERSON HAD TO BE ALIVE

1355
00:56:44,000 --> 00:56:50,760
WHEN YOU RECEIVE THE PRIZE, 

1356
00:56:50,760 --> 00:56:51,000
ACTUALLY.

1357
00:56:51,000 --> 00:56:53,480
>> NOTHING YET IN THE
QUESTION 

1358
00:56:53,480 --> 00:56:54,680
FROM THE PANEL HERE.

1359
00:56:54,680 --> 00:56:55,680
STILL WAITING FOR ANYTHING ELSE 

1360
00:56:55,680 --> 00:56:56,640
TO COME IN.

1361
00:56:56,640 --> 00:57:00,440
YOU CAN SUBMIT A QUESTION VIA 

1362
00:57:00,440 --> 00:57:02,360
THE VIDEOCAST FEEDBACK FORM 

1363
00:57:02,360 --> 00:57:04,160
RIGHT BELOW YOUR VIDEOCAST 

1364
00:57:04,160 --> 00:57:04,560
SCREEN.

1365
00:57:04,560 --> 00:57:07,720
>> I'VE GOT A QUESTION.

1366
00:57:07,720 --> 00:57:10,440
IN GOING THROUGH THE MARVELOUS 

1367
00:57:10,440 --> 00:57:12,600
LECTURE, WHEN DID THE ACTUAL 

1368
00:57:12,600 --> 00:57:14,160
CONCEPT IN YOUR MIND OF THE GENE

1369
00:57:14,160 --> 00:57:16,080
BECOME AN IMPORTANT ISSUE FOR 

1370
00:57:16,080 --> 00:57:17,200
THE NOBEL COMMITTEE?

1371
00:57:17,200 --> 00:57:21,000
THERE WERE OBSERVATIONS THAT 

1372
00:57:21,000 --> 00:57:23,400
WERE MADE, BUT CAN YOU SORT OF 

1373
00:57:23,400 --> 00:57:25,880
TIME, WAS IT IN THE 1940S OR 50S

1374
00:57:25,880 --> 00:57:26,920
THAT PEOPLE ACTUALLY SAID THERE 

1375
00:57:26,920 --> 00:57:30,520
WAS A GENE AND WE ARE GOING TO 

1376
00:57:30,520 --> 00:57:33,000
AWARD THE PRIZE FOR SEMINAL WORK

1377
00:57:33,000 --> 00:57:33,920
LEADING TO THAT?

1378
00:57:33,920 --> 00:57:36,400
WHEN DID THAT CONCEPT ACTUALLY 

1379
00:57:36,400 --> 00:57:39,360
BECOME PART OF THE PRIZE'S 

1380
00:57:39,360 --> 00:57:39,680
DISCUSSION?

1381
00:57:39,680 --> 00:57:42,480
>> IN ORDER TO AWARD THE 

1382
00:57:42,480 --> 00:57:43,680
IDENTIFYING THE NATURE OF THE 

1383
00:57:43,680 --> 00:57:47,360
GENE, I THINK ONE HAD TO WAIT 

1384
00:57:47,360 --> 00:57:51,520
FOR THE END OF THE 1950S, 

1385
00:57:51,520 --> 00:57:53,520
ACTUALLY.

1386
00:57:53,520 --> 00:57:57,760
AFTER -- THIS VERY LATE 

1387
00:57:57,760 --> 00:58:00,000
REALIZATION, WOULD HAVE MISSED 

1388
00:58:00,000 --> 00:58:01,800
AVERY 1856, THERE ON, THERE WAS 

1389
00:58:01,800 --> 00:58:05,000
A LOT OF FOCUS ON GENES AND 

1390
00:58:05,000 --> 00:58:06,840
NUCLEIC ACID AS IT'S APPARENT 

1391
00:58:06,840 --> 00:58:09,040
FROM THE VARIOUS PRIZES GIVEN.

1392
00:58:09,040 --> 00:58:10,600
SO I WOULD THINK FROM THERE 

1393
00:58:10,600 --> 00:58:13,680
ON -- AND SO MUCH WAS HAPPENING 

1394
00:58:13,680 --> 00:58:14,880
ALL OF A SUDDEN IN MOLECULAR 

1395
00:58:14,880 --> 00:58:19,000
BIOLOGY, THE FOUNDATIONS OF THAT

1396
00:58:19,000 --> 00:58:22,280
AND THE COMMITTEE WAS WELL 

1397
00:58:22,280 --> 00:58:25,600
BRIEFED ON THAT NOT TO SAY THE 

1398
00:58:25,600 --> 00:58:28,840
LEAST THE LEADING FIGURE ON 

1399
00:58:28,840 --> 00:58:32,520
THAT, HE THEN REALIZED HE WANTED

1400
00:58:32,520 --> 00:58:34,760
TO GET THE BIOLOGY IN SWEDEN A 

1401
00:58:34,760 --> 00:58:42,400
LOT OF EFFORTS TO GET GOING BE 

1402
00:58:42,400 --> 00:58:43,440
SURE TO USE THE MIC 

1403
00:58:43,440 --> 00:58:45,720
DR. SCHECTER.

1404
00:58:45,720 --> 00:58:50,120
IN YOUR BOOK THE NOBEL PRIZE FOR

1405
00:58:50,120 --> 00:58:53,240
BACTERIA ASSOCIATED WITH GASTRIC

1406
00:58:53,240 --> 00:58:57,640
CANCER AS PERHAPS THE WORST 

1407
00:58:57,640 --> 00:58:59,480
NOBEL PRIZE THE ONE FOR WHAT'S 

1408
00:58:59,480 --> 00:59:02,560
GENERALLY CONSIDERED INCORRECT 

1409
00:59:02,560 --> 00:59:05,440
INFERENCES IS THE FACT THAT 

1410
00:59:05,440 --> 00:59:08,440
NOBEL PRIZES HAVE BEEN SO 

1411
00:59:08,440 --> 00:59:11,160
SUCCESSFUL IN NOT AWARDING 

1412
00:59:11,160 --> 00:59:14,480
INCORRECT PRIZES INDICATIVE OF 

1413
00:59:14,480 --> 00:59:22,480
THE VERY CONSERVATIVE NATURE AND

1414
00:59:22,480 --> 00:59:26,200
SHOULD THERE BE MORE ERRORS IN 

1415
00:59:26,200 --> 00:59:28,920
ANTICIPATING IN RECOGNIZING 

1416
00:59:28,920 --> 00:59:31,360
NOVEL RESULTS. 

1417
00:59:31,360 --> 00:59:33,480
>> SO THIS IS A VERY GOOD
-- IT

1418
00:59:33,480 --> 00:59:35,560
SAYS IN NOBEL'S WILL THAT YOU 

1419
00:59:35,560 --> 00:59:38,760
SHOULD GIVE A PRIZE TO THE ONE 

1420
00:59:38,760 --> 00:59:42,240
WHO, DURING THE PREVIOUS YEAR, 

1421
00:59:42,240 --> 00:59:44,560
HAS MADE AN IMPORTANT DISCOVERY.

1422
00:59:44,560 --> 00:59:45,600
THAT WAS A MAJOR CONCERN.

1423
00:59:45,600 --> 00:59:49,040
ALL THE WAY FROM THE BEGINNING.

1424
00:59:49,040 --> 00:59:51,040
IT DIDN'T TAKE LONG BEFORE ONE 

1425
00:59:51,040 --> 00:59:52,960
REINTERPRETED THAT AND SIMPLY 

1426
00:59:52,960 --> 00:59:56,760
REFORMULATED AND SAID THAT SO 

1427
00:59:56,760 --> 00:59:58,480
WE, THE COMMITTEES UNDERSTOOD 

1428
00:59:58,480 --> 01:00:00,640
THE PREVIOUS YEAR THE REPORT OF 

1429
01:00:00,640 --> 01:00:01,440
A PARTICULAR DISCOVERY THAT 

1430
01:00:01,440 --> 01:00:08,080
COULD BE 10, 15 YEARS OLD.

1431
01:00:08,080 --> 01:00:10,320
MAYBE NOBEL HAD ANOTHER VIEW ON 

1432
01:00:10,320 --> 01:00:12,320
HOW ONE DISCOVERS.

1433
01:00:12,320 --> 01:00:14,200
HE WAS AN ENTREPRENEUR.

1434
01:00:14,200 --> 01:00:17,200
HE WAS -- AND ALSO COULD HAVE 

1435
01:00:17,200 --> 01:00:18,600
HAD OTHER QUALIFICATIONS IN 

1436
01:00:18,600 --> 01:00:20,880
PHYSICS YOU CAN GIVE A NOBEL 

1437
01:00:20,880 --> 01:00:23,200
PRIZE FOR DISCOVERY OR 

1438
01:00:23,200 --> 01:00:23,440
INVENTION.

1439
01:00:23,440 --> 01:00:25,360
IN CHEMISTRY, WE CAN GIVE NOBEL 

1440
01:00:25,360 --> 01:00:26,840
PRIZE FOR DISCOVERY OR 

1441
01:00:26,840 --> 01:00:27,120
IMPROVEMENT.

1442
01:00:27,120 --> 01:00:28,480
BUT IN PHYSIOLOGY OF MEDICINE 

1443
01:00:28,480 --> 01:00:30,080
YOU CAN ONLY GIVE FOR DISCOVERY.

1444
01:00:30,080 --> 01:00:35,960
SO YOU HAVE TO DEFINE WHAT IS A 

1445
01:00:35,960 --> 01:00:37,000
DISCOVERY.

1446
01:00:37,000 --> 01:00:38,680
AND REINTERPRET IT, MAY TAKE 

1447
01:00:38,680 --> 01:00:41,360
TIME TO FULLY APPRECIATE IT.

1448
01:00:41,360 --> 01:00:45,640
BUT APPARENTLY A CERTAIN STAGE 

1449
01:00:45,640 --> 01:00:47,040
NOT TO RUSH THINGS.

1450
01:00:47,040 --> 01:00:48,880
AND AS YOU MENTION THERE ARE 

1451
01:00:48,880 --> 01:00:52,000
VERY FEW OBVIOUS MISTAKES.

1452
01:00:52,000 --> 01:00:54,720
THERE IS THE FEBE CASE WHICH IS 

1453
01:00:54,720 --> 01:00:56,600
1927 ABOUT HE THOUGHT HE HAD 

1454
01:00:56,600 --> 01:00:58,720
FOUND THE ORIGIN OF CERTAIN 

1455
01:00:58,720 --> 01:00:59,800
CANCER.

1456
01:00:59,800 --> 01:01:00,360
THAT WAS ALL WRONG.

1457
01:01:00,360 --> 01:01:03,000
BUT BEYOND THAT, MOST THINGS 

1458
01:01:03,000 --> 01:01:05,400
HAVE STOOD THE TEST OF TIME.

1459
01:01:05,400 --> 01:01:08,560
OF COURSE ONE CAN ALWAYS ARGUE 

1460
01:01:08,560 --> 01:01:11,400
THAT WHAT ABOUT OTHER FIELDS 

1461
01:01:11,400 --> 01:01:13,480
COMPETING FIELDS, OTHER FIELDS 

1462
01:01:13,480 --> 01:01:15,840
OF MEDICINE IS HUGE.

1463
01:01:15,840 --> 01:01:19,880
AND ACTUALLY THE TITLE IS ALSO 

1464
01:01:19,880 --> 01:01:21,880
IT'S A PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR 

1465
01:01:21,880 --> 01:01:22,160
MEDICINE.

1466
01:01:22,160 --> 01:01:23,560
THAT'S ALSO VERY CLEVER 

1467
01:01:23,560 --> 01:01:26,680
FORMULATION BY ALFRED NOBEL.

1468
01:01:26,680 --> 01:01:30,240
AND OVERALL, HIS WILL IS 

1469
01:01:30,240 --> 01:01:30,560
REMARKABLE.

1470
01:01:30,560 --> 01:01:32,160
IT'S HANDWRITTEN.

1471
01:01:32,160 --> 01:01:34,000
IT'S WRITTEN IN SWEDISH.

1472
01:01:34,000 --> 01:01:35,320
THERE WAS NOT A SINGLE LAUREATE 

1473
01:01:35,320 --> 01:01:37,080
THAT HELPED HIM FORMULATING THIS

1474
01:01:37,080 --> 01:01:41,520
AND STILL HE GOT IT ALMOST 

1475
01:01:41,520 --> 01:01:41,760
RIGHT.

1476
01:01:41,760 --> 01:01:44,000
>> MAYBE ONE MORE AND
MAYBE ONE

1477
01:01:44,000 --> 01:01:47,840
OF THESE ONLY FROM NIH TYPE 

1478
01:01:47,840 --> 01:01:48,240
QUESTIONS.

1479
01:01:48,240 --> 01:01:50,680
MARSHAL NIRENBERG WAS THE FIRST 

1480
01:01:50,680 --> 01:01:51,600
FEDERAL SCIENTIST TO WIN THE 

1481
01:01:51,600 --> 01:01:52,840
NOBEL PRIZE IN 1968.

1482
01:01:52,840 --> 01:01:55,720
AND ONLY A FEW AFTER HIM HAVE 

1483
01:01:55,720 --> 01:01:56,000
WON.

1484
01:01:56,000 --> 01:01:57,840
DO YOU THINK THE NOBEL COMMITTEE

1485
01:01:57,840 --> 01:01:59,440
HAS A CERTAIN PREJUDICE TO 

1486
01:01:59,440 --> 01:02:00,320
FEDERAL SCIENTISTS?

1487
01:02:00,320 --> 01:02:02,480
IS IT HARDER FOR FEDERAL 

1488
01:02:02,480 --> 01:02:06,440
SCIENTISTS TO WIN THE AWARD?

1489
01:02:06,440 --> 01:02:12,000
>> SO THAT WAS
INTERESTING 

1490
01:02:12,000 --> 01:02:14,160
NIRENBERG WAS THE FIRST.

1491
01:02:14,160 --> 01:02:17,160
SO IN THE EARLY PHASE OF THE 

1492
01:02:17,160 --> 01:02:19,960
NOBEL WORK THERE WAS THIS 

1493
01:02:19,960 --> 01:02:21,560
ENORMOUS DOMINANCE BY GERMANY.

1494
01:02:21,560 --> 01:02:25,000
THEY ATTRACTED ABOUT 60% OF THE 

1495
01:02:25,000 --> 01:02:25,760
NOBEL PRIZES.

1496
01:02:25,760 --> 01:02:27,480
THEN CAME THE TERRIBLE TWO WORLD

1497
01:02:27,480 --> 01:02:31,160
WARS AND NOT THE LEAST FROM 1933

1498
01:02:31,160 --> 01:02:33,400
ONWARDS THE PERSECUTION OF JEWS 

1499
01:02:33,400 --> 01:02:34,160
OUT OF EUROPE.

1500
01:02:34,160 --> 01:02:37,760
AND A LOT OF THOSE FOUND A NEW 

1501
01:02:37,760 --> 01:02:39,680
HOMELAND HERE AND FOUND RESEARCH

1502
01:02:39,680 --> 01:02:41,640
ENVIRONMENTS THAT REALLY ALLOW 

1503
01:02:41,640 --> 01:02:42,880
THEM TO DEVELOP.

1504
01:02:42,880 --> 01:02:47,160
SO AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR, 

1505
01:02:47,160 --> 01:02:48,920
UNITED STATES TAKES ABOUT 70% OF

1506
01:02:48,920 --> 01:02:52,120
ALL THE NOBEL PRIZE IN NATURAL 

1507
01:02:52,120 --> 01:02:52,400
SCIENCES.

1508
01:02:52,400 --> 01:02:54,280
AND YOU SHOULD BE PROUD OF THAT 

1509
01:02:54,280 --> 01:02:56,600
AND YOU SHOULD AIM AT RETAINING 

1510
01:02:56,600 --> 01:02:57,720
THAT POSITION.

1511
01:02:57,720 --> 01:02:58,840
THE CHALLENGES ARE THERE.

1512
01:02:58,840 --> 01:03:00,200
I MEAN, EVERYONE AROUND THE 

1513
01:03:00,200 --> 01:03:04,320
WORLD WANT TO BE PART OF THIS.

1514
01:03:04,320 --> 01:03:08,000
BUT YOU DO SOMETHING ABSOLUTELY 

1515
01:03:08,000 --> 01:03:10,000
RIGHT IN YOUR INSTITUTES OF 

1516
01:03:10,000 --> 01:03:10,960
HIGHER LEARNING, THERE ARE 

1517
01:03:10,960 --> 01:03:14,080
CREATIVE ENVIRONMENTS THAT HAVE 

1518
01:03:14,080 --> 01:03:15,200
FOSTERED THIS.

1519
01:03:15,200 --> 01:03:19,080
SO THAT IS MY COMMENT TO THAT.

1520
01:03:19,080 --> 01:03:19,760
>> THANK YOU.

1521
01:03:19,760 --> 01:03:20,440
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.

1522
01:03:20,440 --> 01:03:22,320
AND I THINK THIS BRINGS US TO A 

1523
01:03:22,320 --> 01:03:22,520
CLOSE.

1524
01:03:22,520 --> 01:03:24,760
AND WE ALL WANT TO THANK YOU, 

1525
01:03:24,760 --> 01:03:27,280
ERLING, FOR A MARVELOUS LECTURE.

1526
01:03:27,280 --> 01:03:28,960
AND THE FOR REALLY BRINGING THIS

1527
01:03:28,960 --> 01:03:30,360
INFORMATION TO US AND GIVING US 

1528
01:03:30,360 --> 01:03:31,720
THESE REMARKABLE INSIGHTS, NOT 

1529
01:03:31,720 --> 01:03:34,880
ONLY IN THE LECTURE, BUT IN YOUR

1530
01:03:34,880 --> 01:03:36,000
SIX WONDERFUL BOOKS.

1531
01:03:36,000 --> 01:03:37,440
AND THANK EVERYONE FOR TUNING IN

1532
01:03:37,440 --> 01:03:39,200
AND THOSE WHO CAME TODAY AND 

1533
01:03:39,200 --> 01:03:41,400
THANK MOST IMPORTANTLY THE 

1534
01:03:41,400 --> 01:03:43,480
OFFICE, THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE 

1535
01:03:43,480 --> 01:03:48,320
FOR PUTTING THIS ON.

1536
01:03:48,320 --> 01:03:49,800
>> FOR THEIR PATIENCE. 

1537
01:03:49,800 --> 01:03:50,440
>> ABSOLUTELY.

1538
01:03:50,440 --> 01:03:52,720
THANK YOU.

1539
01:03:52,720 --> 01:04:02,840
[APPLAUSE]