1 00:00:05,920 --> 00:00:10,240 I'M DAN KASTNER, THE SCIENTIFIC 2 00:00:10,240 --> 00:00:15,400 DIRECTOR EMERITUS OF THE 3 00:00:15,400 --> 00:00:17,320 NATIONAL GENOME INSTITUTE AND IT 4 00:00:17,320 --> 00:00:19,160 IS MY ENORMOUS PLEASURE TO 5 00:00:19,160 --> 00:00:20,600 WELCOME YOU TO THE 16th 6 00:00:20,600 --> 00:00:23,520 INSTALLMENT OF THE 21st YEAR OF 7 00:00:23,520 --> 00:00:24,720 DEMYSTIFYING MEDICINE, A COURSE 8 00:00:24,720 --> 00:00:30,440 THAT IS SET UP SPECIFICALLY TO 9 00:00:30,440 --> 00:00:33,760 BRIDGE THE EXCITING DEVELOPMENTS 10 00:00:33,760 --> 00:00:38,000 OF BIOLOGY WITH ENGINEERING AND 11 00:00:38,000 --> 00:00:38,920 MEDICINE. 12 00:00:38,920 --> 00:00:42,360 KNOWING THERE IS SO MUCH 13 00:00:42,360 --> 00:00:44,200 INFORMATION IN THIS FIELD IT 14 00:00:44,200 --> 00:00:47,000 CAN'T FIT INTO ONE HEAD WE NEED 15 00:00:47,000 --> 00:00:49,440 COLLABORATIONS AMONGST US TO GET 16 00:00:49,440 --> 00:00:50,200 THE COMPLETE UNDERSTANDING. 17 00:00:50,200 --> 00:00:55,200 WE HAVE SHOWN THE ICONIC 18 00:00:55,200 --> 00:00:56,720 BROOKLYN BRIDGE, WHICH CROSSES 19 00:00:56,720 --> 00:00:59,240 THE EAST RIVER IN NEW YORK. 20 00:00:59,240 --> 00:01:01,000 OF COURSE, IT WAS UNDER 21 00:01:01,000 --> 00:01:03,240 CONSTRUCTION IN THE 1860s 22 00:01:03,240 --> 00:01:05,600 THROUGH THE EARLY 1880s. 23 00:01:05,600 --> 00:01:07,760 THIS IS A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN BY 24 00:01:07,760 --> 00:01:10,960 DR. ARIAS' GRANDFATHER WHEN THE 25 00:01:10,960 --> 00:01:12,520 BRIDGE WAS UNDER CONSTRUCTION. 26 00:01:12,520 --> 00:01:14,320 IT IS GOING BETWEEN MANHATTAN 27 00:01:14,320 --> 00:01:17,720 AND BROOKLYN, WHICH AT THAT 28 00:01:17,720 --> 00:01:19,400 TIME, WERE SEPARATE CITIES, 29 00:01:19,400 --> 00:01:20,120 ACTUALLY. 30 00:01:20,120 --> 00:01:22,960 AND YOU CAN SEE ON THAT CATWALK 31 00:01:22,960 --> 00:01:24,880 ON THE LEFT THOSE TWO GUYS 32 00:01:24,880 --> 00:01:26,920 STANDING THERE. 33 00:01:26,920 --> 00:01:30,160 AND THAT PROBABLY IS A BASIC 34 00:01:30,160 --> 00:01:32,360 SCIENTIST FROM MANHATTAN AND A 35 00:01:32,360 --> 00:01:34,400 CLINICIAN FROM BROOKLYN WHO ARE 36 00:01:34,400 --> 00:01:36,240 TALKING ABOUT SOME OF THE 37 00:01:36,240 --> 00:01:37,600 MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ISSUES OF 38 00:01:37,600 --> 00:01:38,920 THE DAY. 39 00:01:38,920 --> 00:01:42,320 AND THAT IS WHAT WE INTEND TO DO 40 00:01:42,320 --> 00:01:44,120 THIS AFTERNOON, IS TO FOCUS IN 41 00:01:44,120 --> 00:01:48,040 ON SOME REALLY INTERESTING STUFF 42 00:01:48,040 --> 00:01:49,680 THAT BRINGS TOGETHER BIOLOGY AND 43 00:01:49,680 --> 00:01:50,080 MEDICINE. 44 00:01:50,080 --> 00:01:52,400 IF WE CAN HAVE THE NEXT SLIDE. 45 00:01:52,400 --> 00:01:54,240 WE'LL TALK A LITTLE BIT ABOUT 46 00:01:54,240 --> 00:01:56,560 THIS WEEK'S PRESENTERS. 47 00:01:56,560 --> 00:01:58,520 SO THE TITLE OF THIS WEEK'S 48 00:01:58,520 --> 00:01:59,920 SESSION IS HOW MINDS AND BRAINS 49 00:01:59,920 --> 00:02:04,120 CREATE LANGUAGE. 50 00:02:04,120 --> 00:02:07,080 AND OUR FIRST SPEAKER IS GOING 51 00:02:07,080 --> 00:02:10,480 TO BE DR. EVELINA FEDORENKO. 52 00:02:10,480 --> 00:02:12,480 SHE IS THE FREDERICK A. AND 53 00:02:12,480 --> 00:02:15,120 CAROL J. MIDDLETON CAREER 54 00:02:15,120 --> 00:02:15,880 DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR 55 00:02:15,880 --> 00:02:17,400 OF NEUROSCIENCE IN THE 56 00:02:17,400 --> 00:02:18,880 DEPARTMENT OF BRAIN AND 57 00:02:18,880 --> 00:02:20,480 COGNITIVE SCIENCES AT MIT. 58 00:02:20,480 --> 00:02:34,040 SHE IS ALSO A MEMBER OF THE 59 00:02:34,040 --> 00:02:34,480 McGOVERN INSTITUTE. 60 00:02:34,480 --> 00:02:36,680 SHE WENT TO HARVARD AND DID HER 61 00:02:36,680 --> 00:02:38,640 PH.D. IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE AT 62 00:02:38,640 --> 00:02:42,680 MIT AND A POST DOC AT MIT WITH 63 00:02:42,680 --> 00:02:50,000 ONE OF THE COVETED K-99-R00 64 00:02:50,000 --> 00:02:50,600 GRANTS. 65 00:02:50,600 --> 00:02:53,440 HER GROUP STUDIES THE 66 00:02:53,440 --> 00:02:54,600 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE 67 00:02:54,600 --> 00:02:56,640 AND OTHER COGNITIVE ABILITIES. 68 00:02:56,640 --> 00:03:00,680 SHE STUDIES THE PROCESSING OF 69 00:03:00,680 --> 00:03:06,240 LINGUISTICS SIGNALLING IN THE 70 00:03:06,240 --> 00:03:08,160 BRAIN, BY MULTILINGUAL 71 00:03:08,160 --> 00:03:12,080 INDIVIDUALS, CROSS ASPECTS OF 72 00:03:12,080 --> 00:03:12,720 MULTIINFRASTRUCTURE LANGUAGE AND 73 00:03:12,720 --> 00:03:13,320 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. 74 00:03:13,320 --> 00:03:15,560 HER GROUP USES A NUMBER OF 75 00:03:15,560 --> 00:03:18,720 SOPHISTICATED APPROACHES, 76 00:03:18,720 --> 00:03:22,320 FUNCTIONAL MRI TO UNDERSTAND 77 00:03:22,320 --> 00:03:24,240 LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN NORMAL 78 00:03:24,240 --> 00:03:26,320 INDIVIDUALS, INDIVIDUALS WITH 79 00:03:26,320 --> 00:03:28,360 DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN DISORDERS 80 00:03:28,360 --> 00:03:29,600 AND INDIVIDUALS WITH A SPECIAL 81 00:03:29,600 --> 00:03:30,720 APTITUDE WITH LANGUAGE. 82 00:03:30,720 --> 00:03:33,120 SHE IS GOING TO BE OUR FIRST 83 00:03:33,120 --> 00:03:33,400 SPEAKER. 84 00:03:33,400 --> 00:03:35,120 OUR SECOND SPEAKER, IF WE CAN 85 00:03:35,120 --> 00:03:38,520 HAVE THE NEXT SLIDE, DR. NADIA 86 00:03:38,520 --> 00:03:38,760 BIASSOU. 87 00:03:38,760 --> 00:03:42,680 SHE IS A STAFF CLINICIAN AND 88 00:03:42,680 --> 00:03:46,920 DIAGNOSTIC NEURORADIOOLOGIST IN 89 00:03:46,920 --> 00:03:50,440 THE RADIOLOGY SCIENCES. 90 00:03:50,440 --> 00:03:53,720 SHE IS CHIEF OF SBE GRATIVE 91 00:03:53,720 --> 00:03:55,680 NEUROSCIENCE AND COMMUNICATIONS 92 00:03:55,680 --> 00:03:58,240 AT THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR 93 00:03:58,240 --> 00:03:59,760 DEAFNESS AND OTHER COMMUNICATION 94 00:03:59,760 --> 00:04:00,120 DISORDERS. 95 00:04:00,120 --> 00:04:04,600 AN ADJUNCT PROFESSOR OF 96 00:04:04,600 --> 00:04:04,960 RADIOLOGY. 97 00:04:04,960 --> 00:04:11,000 A CORE MEMBER OF THE GEORGETOWN 98 00:04:11,000 --> 00:04:14,480 MISSION RADIOLOGY AND THE 99 00:04:14,480 --> 00:04:19,000 CONSORTIUM AT PENN. 100 00:04:19,000 --> 00:04:21,400 SHE EARNED HER MASTERED AND 101 00:04:21,400 --> 00:04:24,720 PH.D. AT THE UNIVERSITY OF 102 00:04:24,720 --> 00:04:25,920 PENNSYLVANIA AND SHE RECEIVED 103 00:04:25,920 --> 00:04:28,400 GENERAL DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING 104 00:04:28,400 --> 00:04:31,120 TRAINING AT GEORGETOWN AND 105 00:04:31,120 --> 00:04:36,240 SUBSPECIALTY FELLOWSHIP IN 106 00:04:36,240 --> 00:04:37,800 NEUROLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF 107 00:04:37,800 --> 00:04:38,120 PENNSYLVANIA. 108 00:04:38,120 --> 00:04:41,000 HER WORK IS INTERDISCIPLINARY 109 00:04:41,000 --> 00:04:45,080 RESEARCH APPLYING NEUROSCIENCE, 110 00:04:45,080 --> 00:04:45,720 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, APPLIED 111 00:04:45,720 --> 00:04:52,800 LINGUISTICS AND BIOMEDICAL 112 00:04:52,800 --> 00:04:53,080 IMAGES. 113 00:04:53,080 --> 00:04:55,840 SHE IS A MENTOR AT GEORGETOWN 114 00:04:55,840 --> 00:04:57,080 AND GEORGE WASHINGTON. 115 00:04:57,080 --> 00:04:59,400 CURRENTLY SHE IS THE DIRECTOR OF 116 00:04:59,400 --> 00:05:04,200 THE DEPARTMENT OF RADIOLOGY 117 00:05:04,200 --> 00:05:06,720 CLINICAL NEURORADIOLOGY. 118 00:05:06,720 --> 00:05:08,720 WE HAVE A SPECTACULAR LINEUP OF 119 00:05:08,720 --> 00:05:10,960 SPEAKERS THIS AFTERNOON AND I'M 120 00:05:10,960 --> 00:05:14,400 GOING TO TURN THINGS OVER TO DR. 121 00:05:14,400 --> 00:05:15,000 FEDORENKO. 122 00:05:15,000 --> 00:05:18,800 EV, PLEASE, TAKE IT AWAY. 123 00:05:18,800 --> 00:05:20,320 >> THANK YOU FOR INVITING ME TO 124 00:05:20,320 --> 00:05:21,560 SPEAK IN THIS COURSE. 125 00:05:21,560 --> 00:05:23,760 IT IS A REAL HONOR AND GREAT 126 00:05:23,760 --> 00:05:25,760 PLEASURE TALKING TO BE FOLLOWED 127 00:05:25,760 --> 00:05:26,800 BY NADIA. 128 00:05:26,800 --> 00:05:29,400 I'M EXCITED TO SHARE WITH YOU 129 00:05:29,400 --> 00:05:31,040 SOME THINGS WE HAVE LEARNED 130 00:05:31,040 --> 00:05:33,160 ABOUT THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM FROM 131 00:05:33,160 --> 00:05:34,760 THE MORE BASIC SCIENCE 132 00:05:34,760 --> 00:05:35,120 PERSPECTIVE. 133 00:05:35,120 --> 00:05:37,120 I'M GOING TO ORIENT US A LITTLE 134 00:05:37,120 --> 00:05:40,160 BIT FIRST BECAUSE LANGUAGE IS A 135 00:05:40,160 --> 00:05:43,000 MULTIFACETED COGNITIVE ABILITY. 136 00:05:43,000 --> 00:05:46,920 SO WHEN WE UNDERSTAND LANGUAGE, 137 00:05:46,920 --> 00:05:48,280 LINGUISTIC INPUT CAN COME IN 138 00:05:48,280 --> 00:05:50,880 THROUGH OUR EARS LISTENING TO 139 00:05:50,880 --> 00:05:53,760 SOMEBODY SPEAK, OR OUR EYES 140 00:05:53,760 --> 00:05:56,200 READING LANGUAGE OR IF WE ARE 141 00:05:56,200 --> 00:05:57,560 WATCHING SOMEBODY SIGN IF WE ARE 142 00:05:57,560 --> 00:05:58,880 TALKING ABOUT SIGN LANGUAGES. 143 00:05:58,880 --> 00:06:01,200 ONCE IT IS ANALYZED BY THE 144 00:06:01,200 --> 00:06:04,720 PERCEPTUAL MECHANISMS, WE LINK 145 00:06:04,720 --> 00:06:08,000 TO OUR STORED LINGUISTIC 146 00:06:08,000 --> 00:06:08,640 KNOWLEDGE INTERPRETATIONS AND 147 00:06:08,640 --> 00:06:12,560 THIS IS HAPPENING ON THE SIDE OF 148 00:06:12,560 --> 00:06:12,880 COMPREHENSION. 149 00:06:12,880 --> 00:06:14,800 WE RECOGNIZE FAMILIAR WORDS AND 150 00:06:14,800 --> 00:06:16,280 PUT THEM TOGETHER IN SENTENCES. 151 00:06:16,280 --> 00:06:18,240 ON THE SIDE OF PRODUCTION WE CAN 152 00:06:18,240 --> 00:06:19,680 USE THE SAME KNOWLEDGE 153 00:06:19,680 --> 00:06:22,080 REPRESENTATIONS TO CONVERT AN 154 00:06:22,080 --> 00:06:22,960 ABSTRACT CONCEPTUAL 155 00:06:22,960 --> 00:06:24,360 REPRESENTATION OR THOUGHT INTO A 156 00:06:24,360 --> 00:06:26,240 SEQUENCE OF WORDS WE CAN THEN 157 00:06:26,240 --> 00:06:29,360 SEND DOWN TO THE MOTOR SYSTEM TO 158 00:06:29,360 --> 00:06:33,120 EITHER IMPLEMENT IT IN 159 00:06:33,120 --> 00:06:36,840 ARCTICLATOR MOVEMENTS LIKE I'M 160 00:06:36,840 --> 00:06:38,680 DOING NOW WITH SPEAKING OR WRITE 161 00:06:38,680 --> 00:06:40,240 OR TYPE OR SPEAKERS OF SIGN 162 00:06:40,240 --> 00:06:42,000 LANGUAGE WE CAN SIGN THE 163 00:06:42,000 --> 00:06:42,240 MESSAGE. 164 00:06:42,240 --> 00:06:43,840 WE NOW KNOW EACH OF THOSE 165 00:06:43,840 --> 00:06:45,160 COMPONENTS OF THE BROADER 166 00:06:45,160 --> 00:06:47,360 LANGUAGE SYSTEM IS SUPPORTED BY 167 00:06:47,360 --> 00:06:50,840 A SEPARATE SET OF MENTAL 168 00:06:50,840 --> 00:06:52,760 COMPUTATIONS IMPLEMENTED IN 169 00:06:52,760 --> 00:06:54,560 DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BRAIN. 170 00:06:54,560 --> 00:06:57,040 WHAT I FOCUS ON IS THE CHUNK OF 171 00:06:57,040 --> 00:06:58,160 LANGUAGE IN THE RED BOX HERE, 172 00:06:58,160 --> 00:07:00,200 WHAT I CALL THE HIGH-LEVEL 173 00:07:00,200 --> 00:07:00,720 COMPONENT OF LANGUAGE 174 00:07:00,720 --> 00:07:01,960 PROCESSING. 175 00:07:01,960 --> 00:07:05,960 IT IS JUST A LITTLE SITUATION OF 176 00:07:05,960 --> 00:07:06,720 THE QUESTION AND PROBLEM THAT I 177 00:07:06,720 --> 00:07:09,800 WILL TALK ABOUT. 178 00:07:09,800 --> 00:07:12,560 SO I OFTEN START MY TALKS WITH A 179 00:07:12,560 --> 00:07:15,720 QUOTE BY A FAMOUS VISION 180 00:07:15,720 --> 00:07:17,520 SCIENTISTS, DAVID MARR WHO WROTE 181 00:07:17,520 --> 00:07:19,400 THAT TO UNDERSTAND THE 182 00:07:19,400 --> 00:07:20,160 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEHAVIOR 183 00:07:20,160 --> 00:07:23,200 AND FWRAN, ONE HAS TO BEGIN BY 184 00:07:23,200 --> 00:07:24,720 DEFINING THE FUNCTION OR 185 00:07:24,720 --> 00:07:27,760 COMPUTATIONAL GOAL BY A 186 00:07:27,760 --> 00:07:28,000 BEHAVIOR. 187 00:07:28,000 --> 00:07:34,240 ONLY THEN CAN A NEUROSCIENTIST 188 00:07:34,240 --> 00:07:35,800 DETERMINE HOW THE BRAIN ACHIEVES 189 00:07:35,800 --> 00:07:37,000 THAT GOAL. 190 00:07:37,000 --> 00:07:38,360 ONCE WE UNDERSTAND WHAT EACH 191 00:07:38,360 --> 00:07:40,440 CELL IS DOING WE WILL UNDERSTAND 192 00:07:40,440 --> 00:07:42,960 LANGUAGE AND CONSCIOUSNESS AND 193 00:07:42,960 --> 00:07:44,440 OTHER HIGH-LEVEL FUNCTIONS. 194 00:07:44,440 --> 00:07:46,800 HE IS SAYING, NO, YOU NEED TO 195 00:07:46,800 --> 00:07:48,960 ALSO CONSIDER THIS OVERALL GOAL 196 00:07:48,960 --> 00:07:51,240 FOR SOMETHING TO EXIST IN TERMS 197 00:07:51,240 --> 00:07:52,560 OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGICAL 198 00:07:52,560 --> 00:07:55,480 CONSIDERATIONS. 199 00:07:55,480 --> 00:07:57,840 SO WHAT IS THE COMPUTATIONAL 200 00:07:57,840 --> 00:07:59,040 GOAL OF LANGUAGE? 201 00:07:59,040 --> 00:08:01,840 WHY DID LANGUAGE EMERGE IN OUR 202 00:08:01,840 --> 00:08:02,080 SPECIES? 203 00:08:02,080 --> 00:08:04,240 LANGUAGE WHICH WE CAN BROADLY 204 00:08:04,240 --> 00:08:07,200 DEFINE AS A GENERATIVE SYSTEM OF 205 00:08:07,200 --> 00:08:09,880 FORM MEANING MAPPINGS EMERGED IN 206 00:08:09,880 --> 00:08:11,800 OUR SPECIES QUITE SOME TIME AGO, 207 00:08:11,800 --> 00:08:13,520 RECENTLY IN THE EVOLUTIONARY 208 00:08:13,520 --> 00:08:14,200 TIME SCALE. 209 00:08:14,200 --> 00:08:15,360 WHY DID IT EMERGE? 210 00:08:15,360 --> 00:08:17,000 TO WHAT END? 211 00:08:17,000 --> 00:08:20,040 TO MANY COMPONENTS OF MANY 212 00:08:20,040 --> 00:08:22,160 BIOLOGICAL ORGANISMS, THE 213 00:08:22,160 --> 00:08:23,240 FUNCTIONS WITH REALLY CLEAR. 214 00:08:23,240 --> 00:08:26,360 WE HAVE EYES TO SEE, LUNGS TO 215 00:08:26,360 --> 00:08:27,640 BREATHE, LEGS TO WALK AND RUN 216 00:08:27,640 --> 00:08:29,160 AND SO ON. 217 00:08:29,160 --> 00:08:31,360 FOR LANGUAGE THIS TOPIC HAS BEEN 218 00:08:31,360 --> 00:08:33,960 A FIERCE DEBATE FOR DECADES AND 219 00:08:33,960 --> 00:08:34,320 EVEN CENTURIES. 220 00:08:34,320 --> 00:08:36,880 TWO IDEAS HAVE BEEN PROMINENT. 221 00:08:36,880 --> 00:08:38,760 ONE PERHAPS THE MORE INTUITIVE 222 00:08:38,760 --> 00:08:39,280 ONE. 223 00:08:39,280 --> 00:08:40,840 WE HAVE LANGUAGE TO SHARE 224 00:08:40,840 --> 00:08:42,440 THOUGHTS WITH EACH OTHER. 225 00:08:42,440 --> 00:08:44,440 WE MIGHT SPECULATE WITH WHY THAT 226 00:08:44,440 --> 00:08:46,680 MIGHT BE USEFUL WITH PROPOSALS 227 00:08:46,680 --> 00:08:49,120 FROM FACILITATING COOPERATIVE 228 00:08:49,120 --> 00:08:51,440 BEHAVIORS HUNTING TO PASSES ON 229 00:08:51,440 --> 00:08:52,440 KNOWLEDGE, TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE 230 00:08:52,440 --> 00:08:57,200 TO OUR OFFSPRING OR SOCIALLY 231 00:08:57,200 --> 00:08:57,880 RELEVANT INFORMATION LIKE WHO TO 232 00:08:57,880 --> 00:09:00,120 TRUST AND SO ON. 233 00:09:00,120 --> 00:09:02,840 AN ALTERNATIVE IDEA, HOWEVER, IS 234 00:09:02,840 --> 00:09:06,560 LANGUAGE EVOLVED TO HELP US 235 00:09:06,560 --> 00:09:07,960 THINK MORE COMPLEX THOUGHTS. 236 00:09:07,960 --> 00:09:14,160 ONE OF THE FAMOUS PHILOSOPHERS 237 00:09:14,160 --> 00:09:17,600 OF LANGUAGE, NOAM CHOMSKY, HAS 238 00:09:17,600 --> 00:09:19,040 BEEN ARGUING AGAINST LANGUAGE 239 00:09:19,040 --> 00:09:19,560 SERVING THIS FUNCTION. 240 00:09:19,560 --> 00:09:21,680 HERE IS A QUOTE FROM JUST A 241 00:09:21,680 --> 00:09:24,080 COUPLE OF YEARS AGO WHERE HE 242 00:09:24,080 --> 00:09:26,600 SAID ALMOST ALL OF YOUR USE OF 243 00:09:26,600 --> 00:09:28,000 LANGUAGE IS INTERNAL, VICHLLY 244 00:09:28,000 --> 00:09:29,120 NOTHING TO DO WITH 245 00:09:29,120 --> 00:09:29,440 COMMUNICATION. 246 00:09:29,440 --> 00:09:31,160 THE IDEA THAT LANGUAGE HAS 247 00:09:31,160 --> 00:09:33,560 EVOLVED AS A SENGS OF 248 00:09:33,560 --> 00:09:39,240 COMMUNICATION OR DESIGNED FOR 249 00:09:39,240 --> 00:09:41,720 EDUCATION MAKES NO SENSE. 250 00:09:41,720 --> 00:09:44,280 HE SAID LANGUAGE ENABLES GREATER 251 00:09:44,280 --> 00:09:45,120 EXPRESSION OF THOUGHT. 252 00:09:45,120 --> 00:09:48,480 THE SYSTEMS OF THOUGHT USE 253 00:09:48,480 --> 00:09:50,280 LINGIST WICK EXPRESSIONS FOR 254 00:09:50,280 --> 00:09:51,800 REASONING, INTERPRETATION, 255 00:09:51,800 --> 00:09:59,640 ORGANIZING ACTION AND OTHER 256 00:09:59,640 --> 00:10:04,720 MENTAL ACTS. 257 00:10:04,720 --> 00:10:10,360 LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN AS WELL. 258 00:10:10,360 --> 00:10:17,560 RELYING ON SIMPLE PHILOSOPHIES 259 00:10:17,560 --> 00:10:21,360 AND INTUITION DOESN'T SEEM TO 260 00:10:21,360 --> 00:10:21,560 FIT. 261 00:10:21,560 --> 00:10:26,520 FIRST, I WILL EXAMINE THE 262 00:10:26,520 --> 00:10:27,160 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE 263 00:10:27,160 --> 00:10:28,680 AND COMPLEX THOUGHT AND 264 00:10:28,680 --> 00:10:29,000 REASONING. 265 00:10:29,000 --> 00:10:30,640 SECOND, I WILL TELL YOU ABOUT 266 00:10:30,640 --> 00:10:31,560 PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE. 267 00:10:31,560 --> 00:10:33,080 AND WE CAN SEE WHETHER LOOKING 268 00:10:33,080 --> 00:10:34,520 AT THOSE PROPERTIES CAN SHED 269 00:10:34,520 --> 00:10:36,160 LIGHT ON TO WHAT THE SYSTEM MAY 270 00:10:36,160 --> 00:10:38,360 BE USEFUL FOR. 271 00:10:38,360 --> 00:10:39,760 AND I'M GOING TO ARGUE AGAINST 272 00:10:39,760 --> 00:10:41,080 THE IDEA THAT LANGUAGE EVOLVED 273 00:10:41,080 --> 00:10:43,160 FOR THINKING MORE COMPLEX 274 00:10:43,160 --> 00:10:44,280 THOUGHTS AND FOR THE IDEA OF 275 00:10:44,280 --> 00:10:46,800 LANGUAGE AS A PRIMARY TOOL FOR 276 00:10:46,800 --> 00:10:47,760 COMMUNICATION. 277 00:10:47,760 --> 00:10:51,040 SO BEFORE I GO INTO THE EVIDENCE 278 00:10:51,040 --> 00:10:52,520 ITSELF, LET ME INTRODUCE TO YOU 279 00:10:52,520 --> 00:10:54,720 THE SYSTEM I HAD PUT IN THE RED 280 00:10:54,720 --> 00:10:56,640 BOX IN MY FIRST SLIDE. 281 00:10:56,640 --> 00:10:58,720 THE SYSTEM THAT SUPPORTS 282 00:10:58,720 --> 00:11:00,360 LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN YOUR 283 00:11:00,360 --> 00:11:00,720 BRAIN. 284 00:11:00,720 --> 00:11:01,760 WE HAVE KNOWN FOR QUITE SOME 285 00:11:01,760 --> 00:11:04,040 TIME THERE IS A SET OF AREAS IN 286 00:11:04,040 --> 00:11:06,360 OUR BRAIN IN THE LEFT HEMISPHERE 287 00:11:06,360 --> 00:11:08,000 IN MOST INDIVIDUALS THAT ARE 288 00:11:08,000 --> 00:11:08,680 IMPORTANT FOR LANGUAGE. 289 00:11:08,680 --> 00:11:10,280 THOSE REGIONS ARE WORKING HARD 290 00:11:10,280 --> 00:11:11,920 IN ALL OF YOUR BRAINS RIGHT NOW 291 00:11:11,920 --> 00:11:13,080 AS YOU ARE UNDERSTANDING WHAT 292 00:11:13,080 --> 00:11:14,240 I'M SAYING. 293 00:11:14,240 --> 00:11:17,840 USING BRAIN IMAGING TOOLS LIKE 294 00:11:17,840 --> 00:11:19,880 FUNCTIONAL MRI, WE CAN FIND 295 00:11:19,880 --> 00:11:21,760 THESE REGIONS IN A FEW MINUTES 296 00:11:21,760 --> 00:11:23,160 OF SCANNING CONTRASTING BRAIN 297 00:11:23,160 --> 00:11:24,520 RESPONSES WHEN I HAVE YOU READ 298 00:11:24,520 --> 00:11:26,440 OR LISTEN TO SOME SENTENCES 299 00:11:26,440 --> 00:11:29,400 COMPARED TO PROCESSING STIMULI 300 00:11:29,400 --> 00:11:32,240 THAT HAVE PERCEPTUALLY SIMILAR 301 00:11:32,240 --> 00:11:33,320 FEATURES, BUT DON'T HAVE MEANING 302 00:11:33,320 --> 00:11:34,120 AND STRUCTURE. 303 00:11:34,120 --> 00:11:35,720 FOR EXAMPLE, I COULD HAVE YOU 304 00:11:35,720 --> 00:11:37,360 LISTEN TO SPEECH IN THE 305 00:11:37,360 --> 00:11:38,800 LANGUAGE -- IN A LANGUAGE YOU 306 00:11:38,800 --> 00:11:41,640 UNDERSTAND VERSUS SPEECH IN SOME 307 00:11:41,640 --> 00:11:42,640 UNFAMILIAR LANGUAGE. 308 00:11:42,640 --> 00:11:46,440 OR READING SENTENCES COMPARED TO 309 00:11:46,440 --> 00:11:48,720 SEQUENCES OF STRINGS OF LETTERS 310 00:11:48,720 --> 00:11:50,760 THAT DON'T FORM WORDS AND DON'T 311 00:11:50,760 --> 00:11:52,360 COMBINE IN ANY WAY. 312 00:11:52,360 --> 00:11:54,320 HERE ARE A FEW SAMPLE INDIVIDUAL 313 00:11:54,320 --> 00:11:57,120 MAPS OF THIS SYSTEM IN SIX 314 00:11:57,120 --> 00:12:00,040 INDIVIDUALS FROM OUR DATABASE 315 00:12:00,040 --> 00:12:02,160 FOR A CONTRAST BETWEEN LANGUAGE 316 00:12:02,160 --> 00:12:03,440 AND THE PERCEPTUAL CONTROL. 317 00:12:03,440 --> 00:12:05,960 THESE MAPS ARE HIGHLY STABLE 318 00:12:05,960 --> 00:12:06,960 WITHIN INDIVIDUALS. 319 00:12:06,960 --> 00:12:09,320 I CAN BRING YOU INTO THE LAB 320 00:12:09,320 --> 00:12:11,000 TODAY VERSUS 10 YEARS LATER, 321 00:12:11,000 --> 00:12:13,960 THAT IS ABOUT THE SPAN OF MY 322 00:12:13,960 --> 00:12:17,360 CAREER USING IMAGING TOOLS. 323 00:12:17,360 --> 00:12:19,920 SO WE KNOW AT LEAST ACROSS THAT 324 00:12:19,920 --> 00:12:21,960 SPAN OF TIME THESE ACTIVATIONS 325 00:12:21,960 --> 00:12:22,960 ARE HIGHLY STABLE. 326 00:12:22,960 --> 00:12:25,360 AS YOU CAN PROBABLY APPRECIATE 327 00:12:25,360 --> 00:12:26,720 FROM JUST THESE SIX EXAMPLES 328 00:12:26,720 --> 00:12:28,280 THEY ARE SOMEWHAT VARIABLE IN 329 00:12:28,280 --> 00:12:29,920 THEIR PRECISE LOCATIONS ACROSS 330 00:12:29,920 --> 00:12:31,920 PEOPLE AND THIS IS THE REASON I 331 00:12:31,920 --> 00:12:33,800 HAVE BEEN ARGUING EVER SINCE THE 332 00:12:33,800 --> 00:12:35,520 BEGINNING OF MY CAREER 333 00:12:35,520 --> 00:12:36,880 TRAJECTORY FOR THE IMPORTANCE OF 334 00:12:36,880 --> 00:12:40,200 IDENTIFYING THESE REGIONS AT THE 335 00:12:40,200 --> 00:12:43,080 INDIVIDUAL LEVEL SO AS NOT TO 336 00:12:43,080 --> 00:12:47,160 BLUR INDIVIDUAL BRAINS IN A 337 00:12:47,160 --> 00:12:48,440 COMMON SPACE WHICH SUFFERS FROM 338 00:12:48,440 --> 00:12:50,960 ALL SORTS OF SHORTCOMINGS, 339 00:12:50,960 --> 00:12:52,560 SOMETIMES LEADS YOU TO INCORRECT 340 00:12:52,560 --> 00:12:54,560 CONCLUSIONS. 341 00:12:54,560 --> 00:12:57,760 I WILL BRIEFLY MENTION SINCE DAN 342 00:12:57,760 --> 00:13:01,680 IN HIS INTRODUCTION MENTIONED 343 00:13:01,680 --> 00:13:01,960 POLYGLOTS. 344 00:13:01,960 --> 00:13:03,480 WE ARE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE 345 00:13:03,480 --> 00:13:04,840 NATURE OF THIS VARIABILITY. 346 00:13:04,840 --> 00:13:07,760 YOU CAN SEE IT IS NOT WHERE 347 00:13:07,760 --> 00:13:09,160 EXACTLY THESE REGIONS ARE. 348 00:13:09,160 --> 00:13:10,840 SOME OTHER PROPERTIES LIKE FOR 349 00:13:10,840 --> 00:13:12,160 EXAMPLE HOW MUCH THESE REGIONS 350 00:13:12,160 --> 00:13:14,120 WORK WHEN YOU ARE PROCESSING 351 00:13:14,120 --> 00:13:15,920 LANGUAGE OR HERE I'M SHOWING YOU 352 00:13:15,920 --> 00:13:19,080 THE LEFT HEMISPHERES OF THESE 353 00:13:19,080 --> 00:13:21,760 PEOPLE, HOW MANY ACTIVITY IS 354 00:13:21,760 --> 00:13:24,120 HAPPENING IN THE RIGHT 355 00:13:24,120 --> 00:13:25,080 HEMISPHERE GIVEN THE LANGUAGE 356 00:13:25,080 --> 00:13:26,400 SYSTEM SHOWS SOME ACTIVITY IN 357 00:13:26,400 --> 00:13:26,960 THE RIGHT. 358 00:13:26,960 --> 00:13:28,720 ALL OF THESE FEATURES, AGAIN, 359 00:13:28,720 --> 00:13:30,040 ARE STABLE WITHIN PEOPLE AND 360 00:13:30,040 --> 00:13:31,040 VARIABLE ACROSS PEOPLE. 361 00:13:31,040 --> 00:13:32,840 WE AND OTHERS HAVE BEEN TRYING 362 00:13:32,840 --> 00:13:35,000 TO ASK, DO THESE FEATURES RELATE 363 00:13:35,000 --> 00:13:37,760 TO SOMETHING LIKE BEHAVIOR? 364 00:13:37,760 --> 00:13:40,360 FOR EXAMPLE, DO US HAVING A 365 00:13:40,360 --> 00:13:41,760 BIGGER LANGUAGE SYSTEM MAKE YOU 366 00:13:41,760 --> 00:13:43,160 BETTER AT LANGUAGE? 367 00:13:43,160 --> 00:13:43,960 OR WORSE? 368 00:13:43,960 --> 00:13:45,600 THIS IS STILL VERY MUCH WORK IN 369 00:13:45,600 --> 00:13:47,960 PROGRESS, BUT JUST A LITTLE 370 00:13:47,960 --> 00:13:49,840 TIDBIT OF A FINDING. 371 00:13:49,840 --> 00:13:52,760 WE HAVE RECENTLY EXPLORED BRAINS 372 00:13:52,760 --> 00:13:55,120 OF INDIVIDUALS WITH WHAT YOU MAY 373 00:13:55,120 --> 00:13:57,040 CALL LINGUISTIC TALENT. 374 00:13:57,040 --> 00:14:00,000 NOT ALL MAY DESCRIBE THEMSELVES 375 00:14:00,000 --> 00:14:01,880 AS SUCH. 376 00:14:01,880 --> 00:14:04,160 POLYGLOTS OR HYPER-POLYGLOTS. 377 00:14:04,160 --> 00:14:06,680 PEOPLE WHO HAVE SOME PROFICIENCY 378 00:14:06,680 --> 00:14:10,240 IN EIGHT UP TO ABOUT 50 379 00:14:10,240 --> 00:14:10,680 DIFFERENT LANGUAGES. 380 00:14:10,680 --> 00:14:13,120 AND WHAT WE FOUND IS THAT IN 381 00:14:13,120 --> 00:14:15,520 THESE POLYGLOT AND 382 00:14:15,520 --> 00:14:16,640 HYPER-POLYGLOTS THESE LANGUAGE 383 00:14:16,640 --> 00:14:18,760 AREAS TEND TO BE SMALLER AND 384 00:14:18,760 --> 00:14:20,120 MORE FOCAL. 385 00:14:20,120 --> 00:14:21,840 THIS IS STABLE WITHIN THESE 386 00:14:21,840 --> 00:14:22,680 PEOPLE. 387 00:14:22,680 --> 00:14:24,120 IF WE SCAN THEM AGAIN WE FIND 388 00:14:24,120 --> 00:14:25,840 THE SAME THING. 389 00:14:25,840 --> 00:14:33,160 I APPEARS THEY DON'T NEED TO USE 390 00:14:33,160 --> 00:14:34,600 CORTICAL REAL ESTATE TO PROCESS 391 00:14:34,600 --> 00:14:35,160 THE SAME INFORMATION 392 00:14:35,160 --> 00:14:36,200 EFFICIENTLY. 393 00:14:36,200 --> 00:14:40,800 LET ME TELL YOU ABOUT PROPERTIES 394 00:14:40,800 --> 00:14:43,840 OF THIS LANGUAGE SYSTEM. 395 00:14:43,840 --> 00:14:45,280 THESE REGIONS RESPOND ROBUSTLY 396 00:14:45,280 --> 00:14:46,840 WHEN YOU UNDERSTAND LANGUAGE. 397 00:14:46,840 --> 00:14:49,000 BY THE TIME IT GETS TO THESE 398 00:14:49,000 --> 00:14:50,840 AREAS IT DOESN'T MATTER IF YOU 399 00:14:50,840 --> 00:14:53,160 READ IT IN A TEXT OR HEARD IT 400 00:14:53,160 --> 00:14:55,160 THROUGH YOUR AUDITORY SYSTEM. 401 00:14:55,160 --> 00:14:57,520 IN THAT SYSTEM IS A MODEL. 402 00:14:57,520 --> 00:14:59,640 SIMILARLY, IT RESPONDS WHEN YOU 403 00:14:59,640 --> 00:15:00,520 PRODUCE LANGUAGE. 404 00:15:00,520 --> 00:15:02,320 IN MY BRAIN THESE REGIONS ARE 405 00:15:02,320 --> 00:15:03,960 WORKING HARD RIGHT NOW. 406 00:15:03,960 --> 00:15:06,320 IT DOESN'T MATTER ULTIMATELY IF 407 00:15:06,320 --> 00:15:10,760 YOU SEND TO YOUR ARCTICLATORS, 408 00:15:10,760 --> 00:15:12,840 SPEAKING LIKE I AM NOW OR WRITE 409 00:15:12,840 --> 00:15:14,560 OR TYPE IT UP. 410 00:15:14,560 --> 00:15:16,240 THESE TWO PROPERTIES SHOULD 411 00:15:16,240 --> 00:15:18,960 SUGGEST TO YOU, THEY DO TO US, 412 00:15:18,960 --> 00:15:20,880 THE SYSTEM STORES LINGUISTIC 413 00:15:20,880 --> 00:15:22,480 KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATIONS I HAVE 414 00:15:22,480 --> 00:15:23,160 ALLUDED TO. 415 00:15:23,160 --> 00:15:26,560 THESE REPRESENTATIONS CAN DECODE 416 00:15:26,560 --> 00:15:27,560 LINGUISTIC MESSAGES WHEN WE HEAR 417 00:15:27,560 --> 00:15:29,000 THEM FROM OTHERS AS WELL AS 418 00:15:29,000 --> 00:15:30,760 ENCODE OUR THOUGHTS INTO 419 00:15:30,760 --> 00:15:38,560 LINGUISTIC FORMATS. 420 00:15:38,560 --> 00:15:43,080 TOP GRAPHICALLY SIMILAR 421 00:15:43,080 --> 00:15:43,960 FUNCTIONS IN DIFFERENT 422 00:15:43,960 --> 00:15:44,200 LANGUAGES. 423 00:15:44,200 --> 00:15:47,360 WE HAVE TRYING TO INCREASE 424 00:15:47,360 --> 00:15:48,400 LANGUAGE INVESTIGATION. 425 00:15:48,400 --> 00:15:50,600 MOST COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE WORK 426 00:15:50,600 --> 00:15:55,360 HAS BEEN DONE ON ENGLISH, GERMAN 427 00:15:55,360 --> 00:16:01,360 AND DUTCH, BUT NOT A LOT OF TYPE 428 00:16:01,360 --> 00:16:02,920 LOGICAL VAIRNT VARIABILITY THAT 429 00:16:02,920 --> 00:16:04,280 CHARACTERIZES 7,000 LANGUAGES 430 00:16:04,280 --> 00:16:06,560 SPOKEN ACROSS THE WORLD AND 431 00:16:06,560 --> 00:16:06,960 SIGNED. 432 00:16:06,960 --> 00:16:09,160 WE HAVE SHOWN ACROSS 50 433 00:16:09,160 --> 00:16:10,920 LANGUAGES ACROSS 10 LANGUAGE 434 00:16:10,920 --> 00:16:13,200 FAMILIES VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF 435 00:16:13,200 --> 00:16:15,560 THIS SYSTEM LIKE NOT JUST ITS 436 00:16:15,560 --> 00:16:18,360 BASIC LOCATION, BUT THE EXTENT 437 00:16:18,360 --> 00:16:19,760 TO WHICH IT SPECIALIZED THE 438 00:16:19,760 --> 00:16:22,160 LANGUAGE SEEMED TO BE STABLE 439 00:16:22,160 --> 00:16:23,840 ACROSS THESE DIVERSE KINDS OF 440 00:16:23,840 --> 00:16:25,160 SPEAKERS AND NOW WE ARE GETTING 441 00:16:25,160 --> 00:16:28,360 TO THE POINT WHERE WE CAN START 442 00:16:28,360 --> 00:16:29,720 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT POTENTIAL 443 00:16:29,720 --> 00:16:32,200 DIFFERENCES IN THE NEURAL 444 00:16:32,200 --> 00:16:33,680 INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE FUNCTIONAL 445 00:16:33,680 --> 00:16:35,400 PROPERTIES OF THESE DIFFERENT 446 00:16:35,400 --> 00:16:35,680 LANGUAGES. 447 00:16:35,680 --> 00:16:36,840 ANOTHER IMPORTANT PROPERTY OF 448 00:16:36,840 --> 00:16:39,600 THIS SYSTEM, AS MANY OTHER BRAIN 449 00:16:39,600 --> 00:16:41,920 SYSTEMS IT TURNS OUT NOW, THE 450 00:16:41,920 --> 00:16:43,960 REGIONS OF THIS NETWORK ARE 451 00:16:43,960 --> 00:16:45,960 STRONGLY FUNCTIONALLY 452 00:16:45,960 --> 00:16:47,160 INTEGRATED. 453 00:16:47,160 --> 00:16:48,600 STRONG ANATOMICAL CONNECTIONS 454 00:16:48,600 --> 00:16:53,120 AND HIGH DEGREE OF 455 00:16:53,120 --> 00:16:54,040 SYNCHRONIZATION SUGGESTING THEY 456 00:16:54,040 --> 00:16:55,400 WORK TOGETHER IN THE SERVICE OF 457 00:16:55,400 --> 00:16:58,200 A COMMON GOAL. 458 00:16:58,200 --> 00:17:03,520 SOMETHING THAT GAVE RISE TO 459 00:17:03,520 --> 00:17:06,520 COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING, WHEN 460 00:17:06,520 --> 00:17:08,920 THESE REGIONS ARE DAMAGED. 461 00:17:08,920 --> 00:17:11,760 IF YOU DAMAGE EXTENSIVE PARTS OF 462 00:17:11,760 --> 00:17:15,160 THE LEFT HEMISPHERE IN 463 00:17:15,160 --> 00:17:19,200 CHILDHOOD, NOTHING BAD HAPPENS. 464 00:17:19,200 --> 00:17:21,920 IN FACT, WE HAVE BEEN WORKING 465 00:17:21,920 --> 00:17:24,360 WITH SOMEONE WHO GREW UP WITHOUT 466 00:17:24,360 --> 00:17:27,480 HER LEFT TEMPORAL LOBE AND 467 00:17:27,480 --> 00:17:29,640 DIDN'T KNOW UNTIL SHE WAS 25 468 00:17:29,640 --> 00:17:29,920 YEARS OLD. 469 00:17:29,920 --> 00:17:31,960 YOUNG BRAINS ARE REDUNDANT AND 470 00:17:31,960 --> 00:17:32,240 PLASTIC. 471 00:17:32,240 --> 00:17:33,560 I CAN TALK MORE ABOUT THAT IN 472 00:17:33,560 --> 00:17:34,200 THE QUESTION PERIOD. 473 00:17:34,200 --> 00:17:36,560 I WILL TELL YOU ABOUT THE FIRST 474 00:17:36,560 --> 00:17:38,200 KIND OF EVIDENCE. 475 00:17:38,200 --> 00:17:40,080 THAT I'M GOING TO USE TO ARGUE 476 00:17:40,080 --> 00:17:41,960 THAT LANGUAGE IS PRIMARILY USED 477 00:17:41,960 --> 00:17:45,120 AS A COMMUNICATIVE TOOL AS 478 00:17:45,120 --> 00:17:48,160 OPPOSED AS A TOOL FOR THOUGHT. 479 00:17:48,160 --> 00:17:49,840 LET'S EXAMINE LANGUAGE AND 480 00:17:49,840 --> 00:17:51,120 COMPLEX THOUGHT AND REASONING 481 00:17:51,120 --> 00:17:52,240 AND THE RELATIONSHIP. 482 00:17:52,240 --> 00:17:54,520 I WANT TO TALK ABOUT THE 483 00:17:54,520 --> 00:17:55,640 SPECTRUM OF ABILITIES HUMANS 484 00:17:55,640 --> 00:17:56,080 HAVE. 485 00:17:56,080 --> 00:17:58,760 QUITE A LOT OF THINGS WE CAN DO. 486 00:17:58,760 --> 00:18:00,920 MANY OTHER ANIMALS CAN DO, SOME 487 00:18:00,920 --> 00:18:03,760 ARE SPECIFIC TO HUMANS. 488 00:18:03,760 --> 00:18:05,080 ASIDE FROM PERCEPTUAL 489 00:18:05,080 --> 00:18:06,800 INTELLIGENCE TO ALLOW US TO 490 00:18:06,800 --> 00:18:10,120 RECOGNIZE OBJECTS, FACES, OUR 491 00:18:10,120 --> 00:18:11,560 MOTOR INTELLIGENCE TO ACT AND 492 00:18:11,560 --> 00:18:14,760 INTERACT WITH THE WORLD WE CAN 493 00:18:14,760 --> 00:18:17,360 DO THINGS LIKE NUMERICAL 494 00:18:17,360 --> 00:18:18,440 PROCESSING LIKE MATH. 495 00:18:18,440 --> 00:18:21,360 WE CAN ENGAGE IN LOGICAL 496 00:18:21,360 --> 00:18:21,600 REASONING. 497 00:18:21,600 --> 00:18:23,440 WE CAN ACQUIRE NEW SKILLS LIKE 498 00:18:23,440 --> 00:18:24,480 COMPUTER CODING. 499 00:18:24,480 --> 00:18:26,480 WE CAN CREATE AND APPRECIATE 500 00:18:26,480 --> 00:18:26,680 MUSIC. 501 00:18:26,680 --> 00:18:29,040 WE HAVE A HOST OF EXECUTIVE 502 00:18:29,040 --> 00:18:31,160 ABILITIES, ATTENTION WORKING 503 00:18:31,160 --> 00:18:33,640 MEMORY AND INHIBITORY CONTROL 504 00:18:33,640 --> 00:18:35,440 AND PLANNING AND DECISION 505 00:18:35,440 --> 00:18:36,520 MAKING. 506 00:18:36,520 --> 00:18:38,160 USING THESE FLUID INTELLIGENCE 507 00:18:38,160 --> 00:18:40,120 ABILITIES WE CAN SOLVE NOVEL 508 00:18:40,120 --> 00:18:42,240 PROBLEMS ON ABSTRACT STIMULI. 509 00:18:42,240 --> 00:18:45,920 WE CAN INTERACT COOPERATIVELY 510 00:18:45,920 --> 00:18:48,760 WITH SPECIFICS AND FIGURE OUT 511 00:18:48,760 --> 00:18:50,160 PROBLEMS, THINK WHAT SOMEONE 512 00:18:50,160 --> 00:18:52,640 ELSE IS THINKING AND SOLVE 513 00:18:52,640 --> 00:18:55,400 CONFLICTS LOCALLY AND A LARGE 514 00:18:55,400 --> 00:18:56,320 SOCIETAL SCALE. 515 00:18:56,320 --> 00:18:57,960 WE POSSESS A VERY RICH KNOWLEDGE 516 00:18:57,960 --> 00:18:59,400 OF THE WORLD, OBJECTS AND 517 00:18:59,400 --> 00:19:01,360 PROPERTIES OF EVENTS AND THEIR 518 00:19:01,360 --> 00:19:03,000 TYPICAL ORDERINGS OF THE 519 00:19:03,000 --> 00:19:05,680 PHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS IN THE 520 00:19:05,680 --> 00:19:07,480 WORLD AND WHAT KINDS OF THINGS 521 00:19:07,480 --> 00:19:10,360 ARE POSSIBLE IN THE REAL WORLD 522 00:19:10,360 --> 00:19:11,320 VERSUS OUR IMAGINATION. 523 00:19:11,320 --> 00:19:13,320 WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 524 00:19:13,320 --> 00:19:15,200 OUR LANGUAGE SYSTEM AND THESE 525 00:19:15,200 --> 00:19:17,160 ABILITIES OVER THE YEARS MANY 526 00:19:17,160 --> 00:19:18,480 HAVE ARGUED FOR OVERLAP BETWEEN 527 00:19:18,480 --> 00:19:20,440 LANGUAGE PROCESSING AND ALMOST 528 00:19:20,440 --> 00:19:22,800 ANY ASPECT OF COGNITION AND 529 00:19:22,800 --> 00:19:24,120 PERCEPTION YOU CAN THINK OF. 530 00:19:24,120 --> 00:19:26,280 I WILL ARGUE THAT LANGUAGE DOES 531 00:19:26,280 --> 00:19:30,160 NOT SHARE RESOURCES WITH ANY OF 532 00:19:30,160 --> 00:19:31,840 THESE ANBILITIES AND MANY OF THE 533 00:19:31,840 --> 00:19:35,760 EARLY CLAIMS WERE BASED ON 534 00:19:35,760 --> 00:19:36,960 SUBOPTIMAL ANALYTIC APPROACHES 535 00:19:36,960 --> 00:19:37,960 THAT HAVE LED PEOPLE TO 536 00:19:37,960 --> 00:19:40,480 INCORRECT CONCLUSIONS. 537 00:19:40,480 --> 00:19:42,200 SO I'M GOING TO ARGUE THAT 538 00:19:42,200 --> 00:19:45,920 LANGUAGE DOES NOT SUPPORT ANY 539 00:19:45,920 --> 00:19:46,960 NON-LINGUISTIC ABILITIES. 540 00:19:46,960 --> 00:19:49,360 TO PROBE THIS RELATIONSHIP, 541 00:19:49,360 --> 00:19:51,960 BETWEEN ANY TWO COGNITIVE 542 00:19:51,960 --> 00:19:54,200 ABILITIES, TWO PRIMARY METHODS 543 00:19:54,200 --> 00:19:56,280 ARE USED. 544 00:19:56,280 --> 00:19:57,840 FUNCTIONAL MRI IS GOOD FOR THAT 545 00:19:57,840 --> 00:19:58,480 QUESTION. 546 00:19:58,480 --> 00:20:00,240 IT IS NOT GOOD FOR MANY OTHER 547 00:20:00,240 --> 00:20:01,600 QUESTIONS, BUT FOR THIS QUESTION 548 00:20:01,600 --> 00:20:04,680 IT IS THE BEST TOOL. 549 00:20:04,680 --> 00:20:06,480 I WILL PRESENT MRI EVIDENCE. 550 00:20:06,480 --> 00:20:08,240 I'M PULLING DATA FROM A BUNCH OF 551 00:20:08,240 --> 00:20:12,320 EXPERIMENTS IN THE LAB. 552 00:20:12,320 --> 00:20:15,000 32 MRI EXPERIMENTS AGAINST 553 00:20:15,000 --> 00:20:18,520 SEVERAL HUNDRED PARTICIPANTS AND 554 00:20:18,520 --> 00:20:21,040 LANGUAGE PROCESSING AND DIVERSE 555 00:20:21,040 --> 00:20:22,360 ABILITIES. 556 00:20:22,360 --> 00:20:24,400 WE FOUND PEOPLE WITH LANGUAGE 557 00:20:24,400 --> 00:20:27,480 REGIONS AND HAVE PEOPLE DO ONE 558 00:20:27,480 --> 00:20:30,160 OR MORE NONLINGUISTIC TEST, 559 00:20:30,160 --> 00:20:32,560 LISTEN TO MUSIC OR SOLVE MATH 560 00:20:32,560 --> 00:20:34,560 PROBLEMS OR ENGAGE IN LOGICAL 561 00:20:34,560 --> 00:20:35,880 REASONING AND SO ON. 562 00:20:35,880 --> 00:20:38,800 IN DARK AND LIGHT GRAY, I'M 563 00:20:38,800 --> 00:20:40,520 SHOWING YOU RESPONSES ESTIMATED 564 00:20:40,520 --> 00:20:44,200 TO SENTENCE COME PREHENCE, 565 00:20:44,200 --> 00:20:45,120 UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE AND THE 566 00:20:45,120 --> 00:20:46,520 GRAY ARE CONDITIONS LIKE 567 00:20:46,520 --> 00:20:50,360 BACKWARDS SPEECH OR READING 568 00:20:50,360 --> 00:20:54,560 NONWORDS OR PSEUDOWORDS. 569 00:20:54,560 --> 00:20:58,800 BLORP OR FLICKIT, WHICH SOUND 570 00:20:58,800 --> 00:21:04,160 LIKE LANGUAGE, BUT ARE NOT. 571 00:21:04,160 --> 00:21:04,760 I WANT TO SHOW YOU A FIXATION 572 00:21:04,760 --> 00:21:05,360 BASELINE WITHOUT ANY STIMULI. 573 00:21:05,360 --> 00:21:06,440 IN DIFFERENT COLORS I WILL SHOW 574 00:21:06,440 --> 00:21:09,760 YOU RESPONSES TO NONLINGUISTIC 575 00:21:09,760 --> 00:21:12,520 STIMULI AND TASKS WHICH SPAN A 576 00:21:12,520 --> 00:21:13,680 WIDE RANGE OF ABILITIES 577 00:21:13,680 --> 00:21:14,640 INCLUDING COMPLEX REASONING. 578 00:21:14,640 --> 00:21:18,040 SO I TRIED TO GROUP THEM HERE BY 579 00:21:18,040 --> 00:22:38,840 KIND OF DOMAINS OR -- 580 00:22:38,840 --> 00:22:41,080 SUGGESTING THIS RESPONSE IN THE 581 00:22:41,080 --> 00:22:42,240 LANGUAGE IS NOT FUNCTIONALLY 582 00:22:42,240 --> 00:22:42,520 CRITICAL. 583 00:22:42,520 --> 00:22:45,160 IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW ALL OF 584 00:22:45,160 --> 00:22:47,560 THESE CONDITIONS ELICIT OTHER 585 00:22:47,560 --> 00:22:50,000 RESPONSES IN OTHER PARTS OF THE 586 00:22:50,000 --> 00:22:51,280 BRAIN, IN DIFFERENT AREAS THAT 587 00:22:51,280 --> 00:22:53,360 ARE ACTIVATED BY LANGUAGE. 588 00:22:53,360 --> 00:22:54,960 COMPLEMENTARY APPROACH FOR 589 00:22:54,960 --> 00:22:56,760 ADDRESSING THIS QUESTION OF 590 00:22:56,760 --> 00:22:57,960 WHETHER LANGUAGE SHARES WITH 591 00:22:57,960 --> 00:23:00,400 OTHER MENTAL FUNCTIONS IS TO 592 00:23:00,400 --> 00:23:03,680 EXAMINE COGNITIVE ABILITIES IN 593 00:23:03,680 --> 00:23:06,640 INDIVIDUALS WHO LACK A PROPER 594 00:23:06,640 --> 00:23:14,560 FUNCTIONING. 595 00:23:14,560 --> 00:23:19,000 APASIA, FROM STROKE, THE 596 00:23:19,000 --> 00:23:21,240 WHOLE -- CORTEX IS WIPED OUT AND 597 00:23:21,240 --> 00:23:23,960 THEY HAVE SEVERE PROBLEMS IN 598 00:23:23,960 --> 00:23:26,440 COME PREHENCE. 599 00:23:26,440 --> 00:23:27,120 SOMETIMING UNDERSTANDING SIMPLE 600 00:23:27,120 --> 00:23:29,000 COMMON WORDS ARE SPARED, BUT 601 00:23:29,000 --> 00:23:32,240 THAT IS THE BEST CASE. 602 00:23:32,240 --> 00:23:34,760 MY COLLEAGUE HAS BEEN STUDYING 603 00:23:34,760 --> 00:23:37,000 THIS POPULATION FOR QUITE SOME 604 00:23:37,000 --> 00:23:39,920 TIME TESTING ON A WIDE RANGE OF 605 00:23:39,920 --> 00:23:41,440 NONLINGUISTIC ABILITIES, 606 00:23:41,440 --> 00:23:44,720 INCLUDING WORK WE HAVE DONE 607 00:23:44,720 --> 00:23:46,480 COLLABORATIVELY SHE HAS SHOWN IN 608 00:23:46,480 --> 00:23:50,840 SITE OF THESE SEVERE DEFICITS, 609 00:23:50,840 --> 00:23:53,520 THEY CAN SOLVE MATH PROBLEMS, 610 00:23:53,520 --> 00:23:57,400 PLAY SUDOKO OR CHESS, SOLVE 611 00:23:57,400 --> 00:23:59,240 PROBLEMS AND ENGAGE IN WORKING 612 00:23:59,240 --> 00:24:02,560 MEMORY, COGNITIVE CONTROL TYPE 613 00:24:02,560 --> 00:24:06,320 TASKS, APPRECIATE MUSIC AND 614 00:24:06,320 --> 00:24:08,040 NAVIGATE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTS. 615 00:24:08,040 --> 00:24:09,080 THEY HAVE AN INTACT 616 00:24:09,080 --> 00:24:11,160 UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD. 617 00:24:11,160 --> 00:24:15,280 SO THE ONLY THING THEY LACK IS 618 00:24:15,280 --> 00:24:18,640 THEIR ABILITY TO EXTRACT 619 00:24:18,640 --> 00:24:20,680 MEANINGFUL INFORMATION FROM 620 00:24:20,680 --> 00:24:22,320 OTHER'S LINGUISTIC PRODUCTION. 621 00:24:22,320 --> 00:24:25,080 THIS IS FMRI DATA. 622 00:24:25,080 --> 00:24:31,320 HERE IS A NICE QUOTE FROM AN 623 00:24:31,320 --> 00:24:32,560 INDIVIDUAL WHO WAS SUFFERING 624 00:24:32,560 --> 00:24:34,760 FROM APHASIA. 625 00:24:34,760 --> 00:24:39,920 THIS IS ONE PARTICULAR ONE 626 00:24:39,920 --> 00:24:42,480 GERMAN PHILOSOPHY WHO DEVELOPED 627 00:24:42,480 --> 00:24:47,560 APHASA DUE TO STROKE. 628 00:24:47,560 --> 00:24:49,320 I SAW AND RECOGNIZED EVERYTHING. 629 00:24:49,320 --> 00:24:51,840 I TRIED TO SPEAK BUT NO MATTER 630 00:24:51,840 --> 00:24:54,880 HOW MUCH I FORCED ATTENTION AND 631 00:24:54,880 --> 00:24:56,320 THOUGHTS TOGETHER, SHAPELESS 632 00:24:56,320 --> 00:24:58,360 WORDS ENSUED RATHER THAN THE 633 00:24:58,360 --> 00:24:59,400 ONES I WANTED. 634 00:24:59,400 --> 00:25:01,240 I CONTENTED MYSELF I WOULD NOT 635 00:25:01,240 --> 00:25:02,480 BE ABLE TO SPEAK OR WRITE FOR 636 00:25:02,480 --> 00:25:05,320 THE DURATION OF MY LIFE BUT THE 637 00:25:05,320 --> 00:25:08,000 PRINCIPLES AND DISPOSITIONS 638 00:25:08,000 --> 00:25:09,560 KNOWN BY ME WILL ALWAYS REMAIN 639 00:25:09,560 --> 00:25:10,320 THE SAME. 640 00:25:10,320 --> 00:25:12,560 TO RESTATE, IT APPEARS THE 641 00:25:12,560 --> 00:25:13,640 LANGUAGE SYSTEM DOES NOT SHARE 642 00:25:13,640 --> 00:25:15,480 RESOURCES WITH A WIDE RANGE OF 643 00:25:15,480 --> 00:25:16,520 ABILITIES, ANY ABILITIES WE HAVE 644 00:25:16,520 --> 00:25:19,480 TESTED SO FAR. 645 00:25:19,480 --> 00:25:21,000 HOWEVER, I WILL MENTION BRIEFLY, 646 00:25:21,000 --> 00:25:23,160 I WON'T TALK ABOUT THIS HERE IN 647 00:25:23,160 --> 00:25:25,800 THE INTEREST OF TIME, IN SPITE 648 00:25:25,800 --> 00:25:27,280 OF A SHARP SEPARATION, THERE IS 649 00:25:27,280 --> 00:25:29,240 GROWING EVIDENCE FOR A DEEP LINK 650 00:25:29,240 --> 00:25:31,200 BETWEEN THE SYSTEM THAT SUPPORT 651 00:25:31,200 --> 00:25:34,040 LANGUAGE AND THE SYSTEM THAT 652 00:25:34,040 --> 00:25:35,160 SUPPORTS SOCIAL COGNITION. 653 00:25:35,160 --> 00:25:40,600 THIS EVIDENCE COMES FROM 654 00:25:40,600 --> 00:25:42,640 LINGUISTICS AND PSYCHO 655 00:25:42,640 --> 00:25:44,720 LINGUISTIC AND BRAIN IMAGING AND 656 00:25:44,720 --> 00:25:50,960 INVESTIGATIONS IN HUMAN AND PRI 657 00:25:50,960 --> 00:25:51,400 MA 658 00:25:51,400 --> 00:25:52,680 PRIMATE BRAINS. 659 00:25:52,680 --> 00:25:54,200 I CAN ELABORATE IF THERE ARE 660 00:25:54,200 --> 00:26:00,720 QUESTIONS AT THE END. 661 00:26:00,720 --> 00:26:03,280 SPECIALIZATION IN NO WAY ENTAILS 662 00:26:03,280 --> 00:26:03,560 INNATENESS. 663 00:26:03,560 --> 00:26:05,320 THEY ARE SOMETIMES CONFLATED IN 664 00:26:05,320 --> 00:26:08,720 PEOPLE'S THEORIZING, BUT WE HAVE 665 00:26:08,720 --> 00:26:11,360 BEAUTIFUL EXAMPLES OF EMERGENT 666 00:26:11,360 --> 00:26:12,520 SPECIALIZATION FOR EXAMPLE IN 667 00:26:12,520 --> 00:26:14,200 OUR VISUAL CORTEX WHERE 668 00:26:14,200 --> 00:26:15,920 INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE LITERATE 669 00:26:15,920 --> 00:26:18,240 HAVE A REGION HIGHLY SPECIALIZED 670 00:26:18,240 --> 00:26:20,760 FOR PROCESSING LETTERS IN THIS 671 00:26:20,760 --> 00:26:21,840 SCRIPT FAMILIAR TO THEM. 672 00:26:21,840 --> 00:26:24,160 THE STORE OF LINGUISTIC 673 00:26:24,160 --> 00:26:26,600 KNOWLEDGE IMPLIED I THINK THIS 674 00:26:26,600 --> 00:26:27,560 SYSTEM EMERGES AND BECOMES 675 00:26:27,560 --> 00:26:29,560 SPECIALIZED IN THE COURSE OF OUR 676 00:26:29,560 --> 00:26:30,960 EXPERIENCE WITH LANGUAGE IN THE 677 00:26:30,960 --> 00:26:34,280 FIRST FEW YEARS OF LIFE. 678 00:26:34,280 --> 00:26:40,600 IT ALSO DOESN'T MEAN THAT THE 679 00:26:40,600 --> 00:26:41,920 COMPUTATIONS THAT ARE 680 00:26:41,920 --> 00:26:45,760 IMPLEMENTED IN THE CORTEX ARE 681 00:26:45,760 --> 00:26:46,360 FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT THAN 682 00:26:46,360 --> 00:26:48,760 THOSE THAT PROCESS IN DIFFERENT 683 00:26:48,760 --> 00:26:50,480 AREAS OF THE BRAIN. 684 00:26:50,480 --> 00:26:52,760 I SUSPECT MANY OF THE SAME 685 00:26:52,760 --> 00:26:54,240 COMPUTATIONS FROM VISION TO 686 00:26:54,240 --> 00:26:56,040 MOTOR CONTROL WHERE WE HAVE TO 687 00:26:56,040 --> 00:26:57,640 RETRIEVE REPRESENTATIONS FROM 688 00:26:57,640 --> 00:26:59,560 MEMORY, ENGAGE IN PREDICTIVE 689 00:26:59,560 --> 00:27:01,480 PROCESSING, TRYING TO FIGURE OUT 690 00:27:01,480 --> 00:27:03,560 WHAT IS GOING TO HAPPEN NEXT, 691 00:27:03,560 --> 00:27:05,720 SIMPLE ELEMENTS INTEGRATED IN 692 00:27:05,720 --> 00:27:07,520 MORE COMPLEX, THOSE SUPPORT 693 00:27:07,520 --> 00:27:09,000 LANGUAGE PROCESSING. 694 00:27:09,000 --> 00:27:13,040 # FINALLY, I HAVE HERE BEEN 695 00:27:13,040 --> 00:27:18,840 TALKING ABOUT LOSING THE 696 00:27:18,840 --> 00:27:20,720 LANGUAGE SYSTEM IN ADULTS WHEN 697 00:27:20,720 --> 00:28:09,400 EVERYTHING IS 698 00:28:09,400 --> 00:28:10,640 THERE IS SO MUCH OTHER STUFF 699 00:28:10,640 --> 00:28:13,000 GOING ON, BUT IN THESE CASES ALL 700 00:28:13,000 --> 00:28:14,760 THESE KIDS ARE LACKING FOR QUITE 701 00:28:14,760 --> 00:28:17,360 A FEW YEARS OF THEIR LIFE IS 702 00:28:17,360 --> 00:28:18,440 EXPOSURE TO LANGUAGE BECAUSE 703 00:28:18,440 --> 00:28:27,640 THEY CAN'T HEAR SPOKEN LANGUAGE 704 00:28:27,640 --> 00:28:28,240 AND NO ONE IS SIGNING TO THEM. 705 00:28:28,240 --> 00:28:28,840 IT SEEMS THAT STRIKINGLY MOST 706 00:28:28,840 --> 00:28:32,560 REASONING ABILITIES IN THESE 707 00:28:32,560 --> 00:28:37,240 KIDS DEVELOP JUST FINE EXCEPT 708 00:28:37,240 --> 00:28:41,200 ONE ASPECT OF THE LINK FOR 709 00:28:41,200 --> 00:28:44,200 SOCIAL COG ANY TIGS I HAVE 710 00:28:44,200 --> 00:28:45,360 ALLUDED TO. 711 00:28:45,360 --> 00:28:47,520 NOW I'M GOING TO LOOK AT THE 712 00:28:47,520 --> 00:28:49,560 SYSTEMS TO SEE IF COMPUTATIONS 713 00:28:49,560 --> 00:28:52,080 MAY GIVE US CLUES AS TO THE 714 00:28:52,080 --> 00:28:54,960 FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE. 715 00:28:54,960 --> 00:28:56,600 I'M GOING TO SUGGEST TO YOU THAT 716 00:28:56,600 --> 00:28:58,120 LANGUAGE HAS SOME PROPERTY THAT 717 00:28:58,120 --> 00:29:00,000 MAKE IT ILL SUITED FOR COMPLEX 718 00:29:00,000 --> 00:29:02,640 THOUGHT AND SOME PROPERTIES 719 00:29:02,640 --> 00:29:04,080 WHICH MAKE IT WELL SUITED FOR 720 00:29:04,080 --> 00:29:12,840 COMMUNICATION. 721 00:29:12,840 --> 00:29:14,360 WHY IS THIS LANGUAGE SYSTEM NOT 722 00:29:14,360 --> 00:29:16,640 GOOD FOR COMPLEX THOUGHT? 723 00:29:16,640 --> 00:29:18,240 COMPLEX THOUGHT RELATES 724 00:29:18,240 --> 00:29:20,720 DIFFERENT PROPOSITIONS TO 725 00:29:20,720 --> 00:29:20,960 ANOTHER. 726 00:29:20,960 --> 00:29:23,800 IT NATURALLY REQUIRES 727 00:29:23,800 --> 00:29:25,320 INFORMATION ACROSS TIME SCALES. 728 00:29:25,320 --> 00:29:26,520 THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM APPEARS TO 729 00:29:26,520 --> 00:29:29,560 HAVE A RELATIVELY SHORT WHAT NOW 730 00:29:29,560 --> 00:29:34,160 HAS BECOME AS A TEMPORAL 731 00:29:34,160 --> 00:29:34,560 RECEPTIVE WINDOW. 732 00:29:34,560 --> 00:29:36,440 IF YOU ARE UNFAMILIAR WITH THIS 733 00:29:36,440 --> 00:29:38,800 CONCEPT, IT IS BASICALLY A 734 00:29:38,800 --> 00:29:41,320 TEMPORAL ANALOG OF A SPATIAL 735 00:29:41,320 --> 00:29:42,000 RECEPTIVE FIELD. 736 00:29:42,000 --> 00:29:43,560 INDIVIDUAL CORTEX, PRIMARY 737 00:29:43,560 --> 00:29:46,080 VISUAL AREAS IN THE BACK OF OUR 738 00:29:46,080 --> 00:29:48,360 HEAD HAVE SMALL RECEPTIVE FIELDS 739 00:29:48,360 --> 00:29:50,400 SO THEY PAY ATTENTION TO A TINY 740 00:29:50,400 --> 00:29:51,720 FRACTION OF THE FIELD. 741 00:29:51,720 --> 00:29:54,360 AS YOU MOVE ALONG THE STREAM, 742 00:29:54,360 --> 00:29:58,080 THE SIZE OF THE SPATIAL FIELD 743 00:29:58,080 --> 00:29:58,360 INCREASES. 744 00:29:58,360 --> 00:29:59,560 SIMILARLY, DIFFERENT PARTS OF 745 00:29:59,560 --> 00:30:02,240 OUR BRAIN VARY IN HOW MUCH OF 746 00:30:02,240 --> 00:30:03,200 THE PROCEEDING CONTEXT, WHAT 747 00:30:03,200 --> 00:30:04,080 HAPPENED JUST BEFORE THE TIME 748 00:30:04,080 --> 00:30:06,320 WHEN YOU ARE PROCESSING THE 749 00:30:06,320 --> 00:30:09,080 RELEVANT STIMULUS CAN AFFECT THE 750 00:30:09,080 --> 00:30:10,760 PROCESSING OF THAT STIMULUS, 751 00:30:10,760 --> 00:30:10,960 OKAY? 752 00:30:10,960 --> 00:30:13,760 WITH RESPECT TO LANGUAGE, IT 753 00:30:13,760 --> 00:30:15,320 SEEMS THAT THE PROCESSING WITHIN 754 00:30:15,320 --> 00:30:16,440 THIS LANGUAGE SYSTEM THAT I HAVE 755 00:30:16,440 --> 00:30:18,280 BEEN TALKING ABOUT, THE 756 00:30:18,280 --> 00:30:20,160 SPECIALIZED LANGUAGE SYSTEM, IS 757 00:30:20,160 --> 00:30:22,040 REALLY ONLY ON THE ORDER OF A 758 00:30:22,040 --> 00:30:24,520 FEW WORDS, BETWEEN SIX AND 10 759 00:30:24,520 --> 00:30:24,720 WORDS. 760 00:30:24,720 --> 00:30:26,560 BEYOND THAT, THERE IS NO 761 00:30:26,560 --> 00:30:28,840 SENSITIVITY TO INFORMATION IN 762 00:30:28,840 --> 00:30:30,360 THE PRECEDING CONTEXT. 763 00:30:30,360 --> 00:30:33,920 THERE IS A COUPLE OF DIFFERENT 764 00:30:33,920 --> 00:30:34,880 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE I'M HAPPY TO 765 00:30:34,880 --> 00:30:35,400 DISCUSS MORE. 766 00:30:35,400 --> 00:30:37,160 OF COURSE, WE HAVE A SYSTEM IN 767 00:30:37,160 --> 00:30:39,000 OUR BRAIN THAT KEEPS TRACK OF 768 00:30:39,000 --> 00:30:42,760 MUCH LONGER TIME SCALES OF 769 00:30:42,760 --> 00:30:43,120 INFORMATION. 770 00:30:43,120 --> 00:30:45,560 A SYSTEM KNOWN AS THE DEFAULT 771 00:30:45,560 --> 00:30:48,360 NETWORK OR DEFAULT MODE NETWORK 772 00:30:48,360 --> 00:30:49,080 APPEARS TO HAVE LONG INTEGRATION 773 00:30:49,080 --> 00:30:51,600 TIME WINDOWS, BUT THIS SYSTEM IS 774 00:30:51,600 --> 00:30:53,440 NO LONGER SPECIFIC. 775 00:30:53,440 --> 00:30:58,040 IT PROCESSES INFORMATION IN 776 00:30:58,040 --> 00:31:00,880 STORIES AND DIALOGUE AND 777 00:31:00,880 --> 00:31:03,240 NONVERBAL DIALOGUE LIKE SILENT 778 00:31:03,240 --> 00:31:04,040 FILMS. 779 00:31:04,040 --> 00:31:05,160 IT HAS TO INTERFACE. 780 00:31:05,160 --> 00:31:07,760 THIS IS ONE OF THE DOWNSTREAM 781 00:31:07,760 --> 00:31:08,000 TARGETS. 782 00:31:08,000 --> 00:31:09,880 THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM APPEARS TO 783 00:31:09,880 --> 00:31:12,560 KEEP TRACK OF RELATIVELY SHORT 784 00:31:12,560 --> 00:31:14,400 CONTACTS WHICH MAKE IT NOT 785 00:31:14,400 --> 00:31:16,080 SUITABLE FOR REASONING AND 786 00:31:16,080 --> 00:31:16,920 THOUGHT. 787 00:31:16,920 --> 00:31:18,760 IN THE THEORETICAL TRADITION 788 00:31:18,760 --> 00:31:22,400 THAT HAS ADVOCATED THIS IDEA OF 789 00:31:22,400 --> 00:31:25,360 LANGUAGE FOR THOUGHT VIEW, THE 790 00:31:25,360 --> 00:31:31,960 FOCUS HAS BEEN ON SYNAPTIC 791 00:31:31,960 --> 00:31:36,680 RULES. 792 00:31:36,680 --> 00:31:38,360 LINGUISTIC SYNTAX HAS BEEN 793 00:31:38,360 --> 00:31:40,160 REFERRED TO AS MERGE, CONSTRUED 794 00:31:40,160 --> 00:31:43,680 AS AN OPERATION THAT CREATES NEW 795 00:31:43,680 --> 00:31:46,040 REPRESENTATIONAL ELEMENTS FROM 796 00:31:46,040 --> 00:31:47,600 SOME ALREADY CONSTRUCTED 797 00:31:47,600 --> 00:31:49,520 ELEMENTS, Z AND X AND Y. 798 00:31:49,520 --> 00:31:51,040 THE WHOLE REASONING IN THIS 799 00:31:51,040 --> 00:31:52,520 TRADITION IS THIS OPERATION 800 00:31:52,520 --> 00:31:55,960 EMERGED IN THE HUMAN BRAIN AND 801 00:31:55,960 --> 00:31:57,640 ENABLED GREATER COMPLEXITY AND 802 00:31:57,640 --> 00:31:59,920 THOUGHT AND ALLOWED US TO PUT 803 00:31:59,920 --> 00:32:01,080 PROPOSITIONS INTO COMPLEX TRAINS 804 00:32:01,080 --> 00:32:02,800 OF THOUGHT. 805 00:32:02,800 --> 00:32:06,680 NOW, FOR THIS WHOLE ARGUMENT TO 806 00:32:06,680 --> 00:32:09,960 WORK, THIS OPERATION HAS TO BE 807 00:32:09,960 --> 00:32:10,520 HIGHLY ABSTRACT. 808 00:32:10,520 --> 00:32:11,960 IT DOESN'T CARE WHAT THINGS IT 809 00:32:11,960 --> 00:32:12,840 IS COMBINING. 810 00:32:12,840 --> 00:32:15,920 BUT IT TURNS OUT THAT LINGUISTIC 811 00:32:15,920 --> 00:32:19,280 SYNTAX IS ACTUALLY NOT ABSTRACT 812 00:32:19,280 --> 00:32:21,840 AND INSTEAD INTIMATELY TIED TO 813 00:32:21,840 --> 00:32:22,800 MEANINGS OF PARTICULAR WORDS 814 00:32:22,800 --> 00:32:24,360 BEING COMBINED. 815 00:32:24,360 --> 00:32:26,560 I DON'T HAVE TIME TO TALK TO YOU 816 00:32:26,560 --> 00:32:28,560 ABOUT THE SPECIFIC EVIDENCE BUT 817 00:32:28,560 --> 00:32:31,440 THERE ARE PUBLISHED PAPERS I'M 818 00:32:31,440 --> 00:32:32,200 CITING HERE. 819 00:32:32,200 --> 00:32:34,160 I'M HAPPY TO POINT YOU TO. 820 00:32:34,160 --> 00:32:35,760 BUT BASICALLY WE AND MANY OTHERS 821 00:32:35,760 --> 00:32:39,760 HAVE FOUND THERE IS NO SUCH 822 00:32:39,760 --> 00:32:45,840 THING AS A SYNTACTIC HUB. 823 00:32:45,840 --> 00:32:48,360 # TO THE EXTENT THIS WHOLE 824 00:32:48,360 --> 00:32:50,360 SYSTEM IS SENSITIVE TO STRUCTURE 825 00:32:50,360 --> 00:32:52,160 BECAUSE THAT IS A BIG PART OF 826 00:32:52,160 --> 00:32:54,680 REGULARITY IN THE INPUT, BUT ANY 827 00:32:54,680 --> 00:32:57,960 BIT OF THAT SYSTEM, BE THE BRAIN 828 00:32:57,960 --> 00:33:00,200 REGION OR POPULATION OF CELLS WE 829 00:33:00,200 --> 00:33:03,160 CAN PROBE WITH INTERCRANIAL 830 00:33:03,160 --> 00:33:04,440 RECORDINGS, ANYTHING SHOWS 831 00:33:04,440 --> 00:33:06,520 SENSITIVITY TO STRUCTURE, A LIST 832 00:33:06,520 --> 00:33:09,880 OF UNCONNECTED WORDS OR 833 00:33:09,880 --> 00:33:11,440 SENSITIVITY TO GRAMMATICAL 834 00:33:11,440 --> 00:33:14,560 VIOLATIONS WILL BE DEEPLY 835 00:33:14,560 --> 00:33:16,960 MEANINGFUL TO INDIVIDUAL WORDS, 836 00:33:16,960 --> 00:33:18,800 RESPONDING MORE TO TABLE THAN 837 00:33:18,800 --> 00:33:19,960 BLANKET. 838 00:33:19,960 --> 00:33:21,920 I'M GOING TO SKIP OVER HERE A 839 00:33:21,920 --> 00:33:24,040 TINY LITTLE BIT. 840 00:33:24,040 --> 00:33:29,400 THIS GENERAL STRONG INTEGRATION 841 00:33:29,400 --> 00:33:31,160 BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND MEANING 842 00:33:31,160 --> 00:33:34,440 ALIGNS WITH ACCUMULATING 843 00:33:34,440 --> 00:33:35,840 EVIDENCE AGAINST A GENERAL LINK 844 00:33:35,840 --> 00:33:37,440 BETWEEN MEMORY AND COMPUTATION. 845 00:33:37,440 --> 00:33:40,360 IT SEEMS THE VERY SAME CIRCUITS 846 00:33:40,360 --> 00:33:41,720 THAT STORE INFORMATION ARE ALSO 847 00:33:41,720 --> 00:33:42,840 USED TO PROCESS THAT 848 00:33:42,840 --> 00:33:43,160 INFORMATION. 849 00:33:43,160 --> 00:33:46,840 THESE ARGUMENTS COME FROM 850 00:33:46,840 --> 00:33:47,960 NEUROBIOLOGY WHERE NO KNOWN 851 00:33:47,960 --> 00:33:54,480 ORGANISMS HAVE CELLS THAT JUST 852 00:33:54,480 --> 00:33:56,560 STORE INFORMATION AS WELL AS 853 00:33:56,560 --> 00:33:58,040 PERFORM COMPUTATION AND WHAT WE 854 00:33:58,040 --> 00:33:58,800 LEARNED FROM COMPUTER SCIENCE 855 00:33:58,800 --> 00:34:02,800 WHERE MEMORY ALLOWS FOR 856 00:34:02,800 --> 00:34:04,600 EFFICIENT REUSE OF COMPUTATIONS 857 00:34:04,600 --> 00:34:07,960 AGAINST MEMORIZATION. 858 00:34:07,960 --> 00:34:09,960 INSTEAD OF INPUTTING EVERYTHING 859 00:34:09,960 --> 00:34:13,480 ON THE FLY, YOU CAN STORE 860 00:34:13,480 --> 00:34:15,280 SEQUENCES OF FUNCTION CALLS AND 861 00:34:15,280 --> 00:34:17,320 THAT REUSE IS HIGHLY EFFICIENT 862 00:34:17,320 --> 00:34:19,160 AND NOW VERY ACTIVELY BEING USED 863 00:34:19,160 --> 00:34:20,360 IN A LOT OF DEEP LEARNING 864 00:34:20,360 --> 00:34:22,480 SYSTEMS. 865 00:34:22,480 --> 00:34:30,800 ALL RIGHT. 866 00:34:30,800 --> 00:34:35,560 SO, IF LANGUAGE DOESN'T RELY ON 867 00:34:35,560 --> 00:34:36,800 AN ABSTRACT OPERATION THAT CAN 868 00:34:36,800 --> 00:34:38,840 BE APPLIED TO ANY KIND OF 869 00:34:38,840 --> 00:34:40,160 REPRESENTATIONS COMBINED WITH 870 00:34:40,160 --> 00:34:42,640 ENGAGING IN COMPLEX THOUGHT DOES 871 00:34:42,640 --> 00:34:44,040 NOT ACTIVATE THE LANGUAGE 872 00:34:44,040 --> 00:34:46,840 NETWORK AND COMPLEX REASONING 873 00:34:46,840 --> 00:34:47,880 APPEARS POSSIBLE EVEN WHEN THE 874 00:34:47,880 --> 00:34:49,640 LANGUAGE SYSTEM IS SEVERELY 875 00:34:49,640 --> 00:34:51,720 DAMAGED, IT IS NOT CLEAR HOW 876 00:34:51,720 --> 00:34:53,320 LANGUAGE GAVE RISE TO COMPLEX 877 00:34:53,320 --> 00:34:54,720 THOUGHT AND REASONING. 878 00:34:54,720 --> 00:34:56,720 I WILL BRIEFLY MENTION IN THE 879 00:34:56,720 --> 00:34:58,760 REMAINING FEW MINUTES TWO 880 00:34:58,760 --> 00:34:59,840 PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE THAT MAKE 881 00:34:59,840 --> 00:35:00,560 IT WELL SUITED FOR 882 00:35:00,560 --> 00:35:08,880 COMMUNICATION. 883 00:35:08,880 --> 00:35:10,960 THERE IS AMPLE EVIDENCE THAT 884 00:35:10,960 --> 00:35:12,560 NATURAL LANGUAGES ARE EFFICIENT 885 00:35:12,560 --> 00:35:13,760 FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER. 886 00:35:13,760 --> 00:35:16,360 THIS COMES FROM SOUND SYSTEM TO 887 00:35:16,360 --> 00:35:17,720 VOCABULARIES TO GRAMMARS. 888 00:35:17,720 --> 00:35:19,880 ALL OF WHICH APPEAR TO BE 889 00:35:19,880 --> 00:35:22,040 STRONGLY SHAPED BY COMMUNICATIVE 890 00:35:22,040 --> 00:35:24,280 PRESSURES LEADING TO A 891 00:35:24,280 --> 00:35:25,840 LINGUISTIC CODE THAT IS SHORT, 892 00:35:25,840 --> 00:35:29,160 ON AVERAGE, MAKING IT EASY TO 893 00:35:29,160 --> 00:35:31,120 PRODUCE ON THE OTHER HAND 894 00:35:31,120 --> 00:35:40,240 CONTEXTUALLY DISAMBIGUATED AND 895 00:35:40,240 --> 00:35:42,080 REDUNDANT AND ROBUST TO NOISE. 896 00:35:42,080 --> 00:35:44,280 IT IS NOT CLEAR WHY IT WOULD 897 00:35:44,280 --> 00:35:45,880 EXHIBIT THESE CHARACTERISTICS. 898 00:35:45,880 --> 00:35:48,080 YOU CAN -- AND SOME PEOPLE HAVE 899 00:35:48,080 --> 00:35:49,200 ARGUED MAYBE IT DEVELOPED FOR 900 00:35:49,200 --> 00:35:53,080 THOUGHT BUT ACQUIRED THESE 901 00:35:53,080 --> 00:35:55,120 CHARACTERISTICS ALONG THE WAY 902 00:35:55,120 --> 00:35:57,040 DUE TO SECONDARY ROLE. 903 00:35:57,040 --> 00:36:00,800 THE LANGUAGE OF THOUGHT BECOMES 904 00:36:00,800 --> 00:36:01,760 FALSIFIABLE AND SCIENTIFICALLY 905 00:36:01,760 --> 00:36:03,120 NOT INTERESTING. 906 00:36:03,120 --> 00:36:04,280 THE SECOND PROPERTY OF LANGUAGE 907 00:36:04,280 --> 00:36:06,360 THAT ONLY MAKES SENSE IN LIGHT 908 00:36:06,360 --> 00:36:08,680 OF THINKING WHAT IS A 909 00:36:08,680 --> 00:36:10,160 COMMUNICATIVE TOOL IS LANGUAGE 910 00:36:10,160 --> 00:36:12,160 PROCESSING APPEARS TO BE 911 00:36:12,160 --> 00:36:14,280 FUNDAMENTALLY PREDICTIVE. 912 00:36:14,280 --> 00:36:16,560 PREDICTION IN LANGUAGE AS 913 00:36:16,560 --> 00:36:18,320 ANOTHER DOMAIN MAKES SENSE FROM 914 00:36:18,320 --> 00:36:21,320 A COMPREHENDER WHO IS TRYING TO 915 00:36:21,320 --> 00:36:22,800 INTEND THE MEANING FROM 916 00:36:22,800 --> 00:36:26,800 LINGUISTIC SIGNAL AND ENGAGING 917 00:36:26,800 --> 00:36:29,640 IN PROCESSING MAKES IT EASIER 918 00:36:29,640 --> 00:36:30,800 BECAUSE ELEMENTS ARE 919 00:36:30,800 --> 00:36:31,160 PREACTIVATED. 920 00:36:31,160 --> 00:36:34,120 IT IS NOT CLEAR WHY LANGUAGE 921 00:36:34,120 --> 00:36:35,760 PROCESSING WOULD BECOME 922 00:36:35,760 --> 00:36:38,080 PREDICTIVE IF LANGUAGE WAS 923 00:36:38,080 --> 00:36:39,120 PRIMARILY AN INTERNAL SYSTEM OF 924 00:36:39,120 --> 00:36:39,360 THOUGHT. 925 00:36:39,360 --> 00:36:41,440 I HAVE TWO OR THREE MINUTES LEFT 926 00:36:41,440 --> 00:36:46,000 HERE, SO I WILL MENTION, ONE 927 00:36:46,000 --> 00:36:47,960 VERY COOL SOURCE OF EVIDENCE 928 00:36:47,960 --> 00:36:49,280 WHICH COMES FROM RECENT EFFORTS 929 00:36:49,280 --> 00:36:52,640 TO RELATE DEEP LEARNING 930 00:36:52,640 --> 00:36:54,200 ARCHITECTURES TO HUMAN 931 00:36:54,200 --> 00:36:56,240 REPRESENTATIONS, NEURAL 932 00:36:56,240 --> 00:36:57,560 REPRESENTATIONS DURING LANGUAGE 933 00:36:57,560 --> 00:36:57,840 PROCESSING. 934 00:36:57,840 --> 00:37:00,040 SO YOU ALL KNOW LANGUAGE HAS 935 00:37:00,040 --> 00:37:02,960 BEEN LONG ARGUED TO BE ONE OF 936 00:37:02,960 --> 00:37:04,520 THE MOST DIFFICULT DOMAINS TO 937 00:37:04,520 --> 00:37:05,960 STUDY BECAUSE WE DON'T HAVE 938 00:37:05,960 --> 00:37:08,280 ANIMAL MODELS SO WE ARE LIMITED 939 00:37:08,280 --> 00:37:10,160 IN THE THINGS WE CAN DO. 940 00:37:10,160 --> 00:37:15,040 ONE BARRIER, THE LACK OF 941 00:37:15,040 --> 00:37:16,280 COMPUTATIONALLY EXPLICIT 942 00:37:16,280 --> 00:37:17,240 ACCOUNTS OF LANGUAGE 943 00:37:17,240 --> 00:37:18,320 UNDERSTANDING HAS BEEN LIFTED. 944 00:37:18,320 --> 00:37:22,160 THIS HAPPENS IN THE LAST FIVE, 945 00:37:22,160 --> 00:37:22,800 SIX YEARS. 946 00:37:22,800 --> 00:37:25,240 MACHINE LEARNING ADVANCES, REAL 947 00:37:25,240 --> 00:37:26,760 ENGINEERING BREAK THROUGHS 948 00:37:26,760 --> 00:37:27,880 HAPPEN IN ARTIFICIAL 949 00:37:27,880 --> 00:37:29,400 INTELLIGENCE WHERE NOW WE HAVE 950 00:37:29,400 --> 00:37:33,360 DEEP LEARNING MODELS INCLUDING 951 00:37:33,360 --> 00:37:36,720 FAMOUSLY SO CALLED TRANSFORMER 952 00:37:36,720 --> 00:37:39,200 ARCHITECTURES, GP T 2, WHICH DO 953 00:37:39,200 --> 00:37:41,560 WELL ON A LOT OF SOPHISTICATED 954 00:37:41,560 --> 00:37:42,960 LANGUAGE TASKS. 955 00:37:42,960 --> 00:37:44,720 ALL OF THESE SUCCESSFUL MODELS 956 00:37:44,720 --> 00:37:47,200 ARE TRAINED ON NEXT WORD 957 00:37:47,200 --> 00:37:48,600 PREDICTION LEADS TO SUGGEST THAT 958 00:37:48,600 --> 00:37:51,560 THIS KIND OF TRAINING LEADS TO 959 00:37:51,560 --> 00:37:52,960 REPRESENTATIONS THAT APPROXIMATE 960 00:37:52,960 --> 00:37:54,480 MEANING WELL ENOUGH TO PERFORM 961 00:37:54,480 --> 00:37:56,120 WELL ON THESE TASKS LIKE 962 00:37:56,120 --> 00:37:58,880 QUESTION ANSWERING OR GENERATING 963 00:37:58,880 --> 00:38:00,360 FREE FORM TEXT OR TRANSLATING 964 00:38:00,360 --> 00:38:01,640 BETWEEN LANGUAGES. 965 00:38:01,640 --> 00:38:03,400 PRESUMABLY THIS IS BECAUSE IN 966 00:38:03,400 --> 00:38:05,240 ORDER TO SUCCESSFULLY PREDICT 967 00:38:05,240 --> 00:38:07,680 THE NEXT WORD YOU NEED TO 968 00:38:07,680 --> 00:38:09,160 IMPLICITLY PAY ATTENTION TO 969 00:38:09,160 --> 00:38:11,360 IRREGULARITIES IN THE SIGNAL. 970 00:38:11,360 --> 00:38:12,880 WHAT WE DID RECENTLY IS TRY TO 971 00:38:12,880 --> 00:38:16,640 SEE IF MODELS THAT ARE BETTER AT 972 00:38:16,640 --> 00:38:19,560 THIS COMPUTATIONAL OBJECTIVE OF 973 00:38:19,560 --> 00:38:21,160 PREDICTING THE NEXT WORD ARE 974 00:38:21,160 --> 00:38:22,920 BETTER AT CAPTURING HUMAN 975 00:38:22,920 --> 00:38:24,680 LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN THE 976 00:38:24,680 --> 00:38:25,240 BRAIN. 977 00:38:25,240 --> 00:38:27,440 WE TOOK OVER 40 STATE OF THE ART 978 00:38:27,440 --> 00:38:31,760 LANGUAGE MODELS AND FITTED THEM 979 00:38:31,760 --> 00:38:33,240 AGAINST THREE NEURAL HUMAN DATA 980 00:38:33,240 --> 00:38:33,600 SETS. 981 00:38:33,600 --> 00:38:36,240 BY PITTED, THE MOST STRAIGHT 982 00:38:36,240 --> 00:38:37,760 FORWARD THING YOU CAN DO, YOU 983 00:38:37,760 --> 00:38:39,720 HAVE RECORDINGS OF PEOPLE 984 00:38:39,720 --> 00:38:41,280 PROCESSING LANGUAGE STIMULI. 985 00:38:41,280 --> 00:38:42,720 YOU FEED THEM TO THE DIFFERENT 986 00:38:42,720 --> 00:38:45,400 LANGUAGE MODELS AND THEN YOU 987 00:38:45,400 --> 00:38:47,840 EXTRACT SOME SET OF UNIT WEIGHTS 988 00:38:47,840 --> 00:38:49,120 FROM THOSE MODELS. 989 00:38:49,120 --> 00:38:53,080 HAVING THAT, YOU TRAIN A LINEAR 990 00:38:53,080 --> 00:38:54,160 REGRESSION FROM THE UNIT WEIGHTS 991 00:38:54,160 --> 00:38:56,160 TO THE NEURAL. 992 00:38:56,160 --> 00:38:57,600 YOU HAVE INTRACRANIAL RECORDINGS 993 00:38:57,600 --> 00:38:58,720 AND FUNCTIONAL MRI. 994 00:38:58,720 --> 00:39:01,520 THAT LINEAR MODEL CAN BE TESTED 995 00:39:01,520 --> 00:39:03,560 ON SOME LEFT OUT HUMAN NEURAL 996 00:39:03,560 --> 00:39:06,520 DATA TO SEE HOW WELL IT PREDICTS 997 00:39:06,520 --> 00:39:08,160 RESPONSES TO UNSEEN STIMULI. 998 00:39:08,160 --> 00:39:10,920 THIS IS A GRAPH SHOWING 999 00:39:10,920 --> 00:39:12,960 PERFORMANCE OF THESE 43 MODELS 1000 00:39:12,960 --> 00:39:15,200 ON CAPTURING SOMETHING ABOUT 1001 00:39:15,200 --> 00:39:16,880 HUMAN NEURAL RESPONSES. 1002 00:39:16,880 --> 00:39:18,400 AND SOME OF THEM ALREADY DO 1003 00:39:18,400 --> 00:39:18,920 REALLY WELL. 1004 00:39:18,920 --> 00:39:20,360 THERE IS QUITE A LOT OF 1005 00:39:20,360 --> 00:39:22,160 VARIANCE, WHICH MEANS THERE IS A 1006 00:39:22,160 --> 00:39:23,960 LOT OF INTERESTING THINGS TO 1007 00:39:23,960 --> 00:39:25,880 EXPLORE, LIKE WHY ARE SOME 1008 00:39:25,880 --> 00:39:27,600 MODELS BETTER THAN OTHERS, BUT 1009 00:39:27,600 --> 00:39:29,360 CRITICALLY, THERE IS A STRONG 1010 00:39:29,360 --> 00:39:30,560 RELATIONSHIP AND I'M WRAPPING 1011 00:39:30,560 --> 00:39:31,960 UP, I PROMISE. 1012 00:39:31,960 --> 00:39:32,720 ONE MINUTE. 1013 00:39:32,720 --> 00:39:35,640 THAT MODELS THAT DO BETTER ON 1014 00:39:35,640 --> 00:39:37,680 NEXT WORD PREDICTION, HERE LOWER 1015 00:39:37,680 --> 00:39:40,920 NUMBERS ON THE X AXIS MEAN BEING 1016 00:39:40,920 --> 00:39:43,320 ABLE TO BETTER PREDICT THE NEXT 1017 00:39:43,320 --> 00:39:45,280 WORD IN NORMATIVE TASK THE 1018 00:39:45,280 --> 00:39:49,000 MODELS ARE TRAINED AND TESTED ON 1019 00:39:49,000 --> 00:39:51,280 AND HOW WELL THEY CAPTURE HUMAN 1020 00:39:51,280 --> 00:39:58,600 NEURAL RESPONSES SUGGESTING THAT 1021 00:39:58,600 --> 00:40:02,520 MAYBE -- MAYBE, I'M SKIPPING 1022 00:40:02,520 --> 00:40:06,440 OVER SOME STUFF, OPTIMIZING FOR 1023 00:40:06,440 --> 00:40:08,440 PREDICTIVE REPRESENTATIONS IS A 1024 00:40:08,440 --> 00:40:12,520 CRITICAL OBJECTIVE FOR 1025 00:40:12,520 --> 00:40:13,160 BIOLOGICAL AND SYLLABLE LANGUAGE 1026 00:40:13,160 --> 00:40:15,360 NETWORKS. 1027 00:40:15,360 --> 00:40:18,760 PERFORMANCE IN OTHER LANGUAGE 1028 00:40:18,760 --> 00:40:21,640 TASKS LIKE ASK A MODEL TO JUDGE 1029 00:40:21,640 --> 00:40:26,760 HOW SIMILAR TWO SENTENCES ARE IN 1030 00:40:26,760 --> 00:40:28,480 MEANING, PERFORMANCE ON THOSE 1031 00:40:28,480 --> 00:40:30,000 TASKS DOES NOT PREDICT HOW WELL 1032 00:40:30,000 --> 00:40:31,360 A MODEL MATCHES A BRAIN. 1033 00:40:31,360 --> 00:40:32,760 TO GO BACK TO THE QUESTION I 1034 00:40:32,760 --> 00:40:34,040 POSTED IN THE BEGINNING. 1035 00:40:34,040 --> 00:40:37,240 WHAT IS THE PRIMARY FUNCTION OF 1036 00:40:37,240 --> 00:40:38,760 LANGUAGE, TO THINK MORE COMPLEX 1037 00:40:38,760 --> 00:40:40,360 THOUGHTS OR SHARE THOUGHTS WITH 1038 00:40:40,360 --> 00:40:40,600 OTHERS? 1039 00:40:40,600 --> 00:40:42,360 THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM IS STRONGLY 1040 00:40:42,360 --> 00:40:43,760 SEGREGATED FROM THE REST OF THE 1041 00:40:43,760 --> 00:40:45,600 BRAIN AND SPECIALIZED FOR 1042 00:40:45,600 --> 00:40:46,160 LANGUAGE PROCESSING. 1043 00:40:46,160 --> 00:40:48,360 I ALLUDED TO THE BODY OF 1044 00:40:48,360 --> 00:40:50,760 EVIDENCE GROWING SUKTING THERE 1045 00:40:50,760 --> 00:40:51,960 IS A DEEP CONNECTION BETWEEN 1046 00:40:51,960 --> 00:40:53,720 LANGUAGE SYSTEM AND SOCIAL 1047 00:40:53,720 --> 00:40:54,520 COGNITIVE SYSTEM. 1048 00:40:54,520 --> 00:40:56,240 I FURTHER SHOW YOU LANGUAGE HAS 1049 00:40:56,240 --> 00:40:57,960 SOME PROPERTIES THAT MAKE IT NOT 1050 00:40:57,960 --> 00:40:59,160 WELL SUITED FOR COMPLEX THOUGHT 1051 00:40:59,160 --> 00:41:01,240 AND SOME PROPERTIES INCLUDING 1052 00:41:01,240 --> 00:41:02,080 PREDICTIVE CODING THAT MAKE IT 1053 00:41:02,080 --> 00:41:03,560 WELL SUITED FOR COMMUNICATION. 1054 00:41:03,560 --> 00:41:05,880 AND I THINK BOTH OF THESE LINES 1055 00:41:05,880 --> 00:41:07,360 OF EVIDENCE SUPPORT THE 1056 00:41:07,360 --> 00:41:08,760 COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION OF 1057 00:41:08,760 --> 00:41:10,120 LANGUAGE AND SUGGEST THAT THE 1058 00:41:10,120 --> 00:41:12,520 IDEA THAT LANGUAGE EVOLVED FOR 1059 00:41:12,520 --> 00:41:15,280 MORE COMPLEXITY IN THOUGHT IS 1060 00:41:15,280 --> 00:41:15,840 UNLIKELY. 1061 00:41:15,840 --> 00:41:17,160 I'M GOING TO STOP HERE AND THANK 1062 00:41:17,160 --> 00:41:22,080 YOU TO ALL OF MY FUNDING AGENTS 1063 00:41:22,080 --> 00:41:23,720 AND COLLABORATORS. 1064 00:41:23,720 --> 00:41:24,320 THANK YOU. 1065 00:41:24,320 --> 00:41:25,560 >> EV, THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR 1066 00:41:25,560 --> 00:41:27,960 THAT REALLY FASCINATING TALK. 1067 00:41:27,960 --> 00:41:31,240 IT CERTAINLY DOES MAKE US THINK 1068 00:41:31,240 --> 00:41:33,600 BACK A FEW TENS OF THOUSANDS OF 1069 00:41:33,600 --> 00:41:35,360 YEARS WITH REGARD TO HOW ALL OF 1070 00:41:35,360 --> 00:41:37,960 THESE THINGS EVOLVED AND 1071 00:41:37,960 --> 00:41:39,680 CERTAINLY I'M SURE WE WILL HAVE 1072 00:41:39,680 --> 00:41:41,320 SOME REALLY INTERESTING 1073 00:41:41,320 --> 00:41:44,560 QUESTIONS TO PONDER AT THE END. 1074 00:41:44,560 --> 00:41:46,800 BUT BEFORE WE START PONDERING 1075 00:41:46,800 --> 00:41:52,760 THOSE QUESTIONS, USING LANGUAGE, 1076 00:41:52,760 --> 00:41:54,440 AS A TOOL AT LEAST TO TALK ABOUT 1077 00:41:54,440 --> 00:41:54,840 IT. 1078 00:41:54,840 --> 00:41:58,120 WE HAVE OUR SECOND SPEAKER WHO 1079 00:41:58,120 --> 00:42:00,680 IS GOING TO REGALE US WITH 1080 00:42:00,680 --> 00:42:02,960 ANOTHER ASPECT OF THIS TOPIC. 1081 00:42:02,960 --> 00:42:08,760 NADIA, TAKE IT AWAY. 1082 00:42:08,760 --> 00:42:10,560 >> EVELINA, I WANT TO THANK YOU 1083 00:42:10,560 --> 00:42:14,440 FOR A WONDERFUL, WONDERFUL TALK. 1084 00:42:14,440 --> 00:42:17,560 IT REMINDED ME A LOT OF THE 1085 00:42:17,560 --> 00:42:23,760 TIMES WHEN I WAS IN GRADUATE 1086 00:42:23,760 --> 00:42:26,880 SCHOOL AND REALLY IS ONE OF THE 1087 00:42:26,880 --> 00:42:30,920 REASONS WHY I WENT TO MEDICAL 1088 00:42:30,920 --> 00:42:34,480 SCHOOL AFTER GETTING THE PH.D. 1089 00:42:34,480 --> 00:42:37,640 AND IT IS THIS ISSUE OF MINDS 1090 00:42:37,640 --> 00:42:41,000 AND BRAINS AND HOW THEY CREATE 1091 00:42:41,000 --> 00:42:42,480 LANGUAGE THAT WAS REALLY THE 1092 00:42:42,480 --> 00:42:45,360 IMPETUS FOR WHY I WENT TO 1093 00:42:45,360 --> 00:42:45,720 MEDICAL SCHOOL. 1094 00:42:45,720 --> 00:42:48,680 WHEN I WAS IN GRADUATE SCHOOL, 1095 00:42:48,680 --> 00:42:54,680 THERE WAS A GREAT DEAL OF TO DO 1096 00:42:54,680 --> 00:42:57,760 ABOUT MIND AND BRAIN. 1097 00:42:57,760 --> 00:43:00,520 AND THE REASON I WAS ACTUALLY 1098 00:43:00,520 --> 00:43:02,480 INTERESTED IN LANGUAGE AND 1099 00:43:02,480 --> 00:43:05,200 SPEECH IS REALLY BECAUSE IT 1100 00:43:05,200 --> 00:43:08,200 REALLY TOUCHES ON NEARLY EVERY 1101 00:43:08,200 --> 00:43:09,960 ASPECT OF OUR INTERACTIONS WITH 1102 00:43:09,960 --> 00:43:11,800 EACH OTHER AND ALSO WITH THE 1103 00:43:11,800 --> 00:43:13,880 MEDICAL SPECTRUM. 1104 00:43:13,880 --> 00:43:15,800 WE SEE IT IN AUTISM. 1105 00:43:15,800 --> 00:43:20,560 IT IS ONE OF THE PRODROMAL 1106 00:43:20,560 --> 00:43:22,440 PRESENTATIONS OF CHILDREN WHO 1107 00:43:22,440 --> 00:43:22,920 HAVE AUTISM. 1108 00:43:22,920 --> 00:43:25,040 WE SEE THAT, AS YOU MENTIONED IN 1109 00:43:25,040 --> 00:43:27,800 YOUR TALK, PATIENTS WHO HAVE 1110 00:43:27,800 --> 00:43:28,320 STROKES, WHO PRESENT WITH 1111 00:43:28,320 --> 00:43:31,680 LANGUAGE DEFICITS. 1112 00:43:31,680 --> 00:43:36,120 WE ALSO SEE IT NEURODEGENERATIVE 1113 00:43:36,120 --> 00:43:37,600 DISEASES LIKE PARKINSON'S 1114 00:43:37,600 --> 00:43:37,840 DISEASE. 1115 00:43:37,840 --> 00:43:39,840 WE SEE IT IN NORMAL AGING. 1116 00:43:39,840 --> 00:43:41,480 THERE ARE SPECIFIC CHANGES THAT 1117 00:43:41,480 --> 00:43:44,360 OCCUR AS SOMEONE AGES WHICH ARE 1118 00:43:44,360 --> 00:43:48,160 DIFFERENT THAN NEURODEGENERATIVE 1119 00:43:48,160 --> 00:43:50,280 DISEASES SUCH AS ALZHEIMER'S 1120 00:43:50,280 --> 00:43:56,040 DISEASE, FRONTAL TEMPORAL DMEN 1121 00:43:56,040 --> 00:44:02,480 YEAH AND MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS AND 1122 00:44:02,480 --> 00:44:08,240 PEOPLE WHO HAVE NEUROPSYCHIATRIC 1123 00:44:08,240 --> 00:44:10,840 DISORDERS PATIENTS WITH AUDITORY 1124 00:44:10,840 --> 00:44:17,480 HALLUCINATIONS SUCH AS SKRIZ -- 1125 00:44:17,480 --> 00:44:17,840 SCHIZOPHRENIA. 1126 00:44:17,840 --> 00:44:19,800 I WANTED TO MAKE SURE I WOULD 1127 00:44:19,800 --> 00:44:22,280 MAKE AN IMPACT TO IMPROVE, 1128 00:44:22,280 --> 00:44:24,400 PRESERVE OR RESTORE THAT ABILITY 1129 00:44:24,400 --> 00:44:25,800 TO COMMUNICATE IN PATIENTS WHO 1130 00:44:25,800 --> 00:44:31,320 HAVE THESE TYPES OF DISEASES. 1131 00:44:31,320 --> 00:44:34,520 AND WHEN I WAS IN GRADUATE 1132 00:44:34,520 --> 00:44:42,520 SCHOOL, THE MAIN ISSUE ABOUT 1133 00:44:42,520 --> 00:44:44,640 MIND VERSUS BRAIN WAS REALLY A 1134 00:44:44,640 --> 00:44:46,360 FUNDAMENTAL ONE. 1135 00:44:46,360 --> 00:44:47,640 YOU MENTIONED NOAM CHOMSKY. 1136 00:44:47,640 --> 00:44:50,040 I HAPPENED TO HAVE GONE TO A 1137 00:44:50,040 --> 00:44:51,400 SCHOOL THAT WAS VERY INFLUENCED, 1138 00:44:51,400 --> 00:44:53,160 AT LEAST THE TIME I WAS THERE, 1139 00:44:53,160 --> 00:44:56,040 VERY INFLUENCED ABOUT THE WORK 1140 00:44:56,040 --> 00:44:57,480 OF NOAM CHOMSKY, WHICH WAS 1141 00:44:57,480 --> 00:44:59,760 BASICALLY ON GENERATIVE 1142 00:44:59,760 --> 00:45:00,120 LINGUISTICS. 1143 00:45:00,120 --> 00:45:04,480 IT WAS THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS. 1144 00:45:04,480 --> 00:45:05,440 AND THE QUESTION WAS ARE WE 1145 00:45:05,440 --> 00:45:08,080 REALLY INTERESTED IN THE HUMAN 1146 00:45:08,080 --> 00:45:08,320 MIND? 1147 00:45:08,320 --> 00:45:09,440 ARE WE INTERESTED IN LANGUAGE 1148 00:45:09,440 --> 00:45:11,480 BECAUSE WE ARE INTERESTED IN THE 1149 00:45:11,480 --> 00:45:12,880 ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN MIND 1150 00:45:12,880 --> 00:45:14,480 OR ARE WE INTERESTED IN THE 1151 00:45:14,480 --> 00:45:16,840 HUMAN BRAIN? 1152 00:45:16,840 --> 00:45:18,920 AND AT THE TIME, IT WAS REALLY, 1153 00:45:18,920 --> 00:45:22,520 WE ARE INTERESTED IN THE HUMAN 1154 00:45:22,520 --> 00:45:23,280 MIND. 1155 00:45:23,280 --> 00:45:26,120 AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE 1156 00:45:26,120 --> 00:45:27,600 LANGUAGES, OF HUMAN LANGUAGES IN 1157 00:45:27,600 --> 00:45:30,520 GENERAL WAS A REFLECTION OF THE 1158 00:45:30,520 --> 00:45:34,520 ORGANIZATION OF THE MIND AND NOT 1159 00:45:34,520 --> 00:45:36,440 THAT OF THE BRAIN. 1160 00:45:36,440 --> 00:45:38,320 AND THEY OFTEN USED THE ANALOGY 1161 00:45:38,320 --> 00:45:41,840 OF A COMPUTER TO MAKE THIS 1162 00:45:41,840 --> 00:45:42,640 DISTINCTION. 1163 00:45:42,640 --> 00:45:44,480 WE'RE INTERESTED IN THE 1164 00:45:44,480 --> 00:45:47,480 SOFTWARE, THE PROGRAMMING OF THE 1165 00:45:47,480 --> 00:45:48,520 COMPUTER, WE REALLY DON'T NEED 1166 00:45:48,520 --> 00:45:51,000 TO KNOW ABOUT THE 1s AND 0s OF 1167 00:45:51,000 --> 00:45:52,040 THE HARDWARE TO UNDERSTAND HOW 1168 00:45:52,040 --> 00:45:53,960 THE SOFTWARE WORKS. 1169 00:45:53,960 --> 00:46:02,480 SO IT WAS REALLY -- WE WERE 1170 00:46:02,480 --> 00:46:05,600 REALLY INTERESTED IN THE HUMAN 1171 00:46:05,600 --> 00:46:05,800 MIND. 1172 00:46:05,800 --> 00:46:06,480 THAT IS TRUE. 1173 00:46:06,480 --> 00:46:08,920 THAT CAN BE TRUE, BUT IT DEPENDS 1174 00:46:08,920 --> 00:46:10,640 ON WHAT YOU WANT TO DO. 1175 00:46:10,640 --> 00:46:13,240 GIVEN WHAT I WANTED TO DO IS NOT 1176 00:46:13,240 --> 00:46:14,840 ONLY DIAGNOSE, BUT MAYBE 1177 00:46:14,840 --> 00:46:16,640 INTERVENE TO IMPROVE THE ABILITY 1178 00:46:16,640 --> 00:46:18,960 AND PRESERVE THE ABILITY OF 1179 00:46:18,960 --> 00:46:22,000 HUMAN BEINGS TO INTERACT IN A 1180 00:46:22,000 --> 00:46:25,440 MEANINGFUL SOCIAL WAY WITH EACH 1181 00:46:25,440 --> 00:46:26,320 OTHER, UNDERSTANDING HOW THIS 1182 00:46:26,320 --> 00:46:28,800 CAME ABOUT IN THE HUMAN BRAIN OR 1183 00:46:28,800 --> 00:46:32,120 WHERE -- WHAT WAS THE UNDERLYING 1184 00:46:32,120 --> 00:46:34,440 NETWORKS AND STRUCTURES AND HOW 1185 00:46:34,440 --> 00:46:35,840 THIS CAME ABOUT WAS FUNDAMENTAL 1186 00:46:35,840 --> 00:46:36,200 FOR ME. 1187 00:46:36,200 --> 00:46:38,560 THAT IS ACTUALLY ONE OF THE 1188 00:46:38,560 --> 00:46:41,840 REASONS WHY I ENDED UP GOING TO 1189 00:46:41,840 --> 00:46:43,240 MEDICAL SCHOOL AFTER FINISHING A 1190 00:46:43,240 --> 00:46:45,080 LOT OF THE GRADUATE WORK. 1191 00:46:45,080 --> 00:46:50,520 SO AS I MENTIONED, THIS WAS A 1192 00:46:50,520 --> 00:46:53,840 FUNDAMENTAL ISSUE. 1193 00:46:53,840 --> 00:46:56,840 AND AT THE TIME, THERE WERE MANY 1194 00:46:56,840 --> 00:46:58,120 PEOPLE WHO FELT THE BRAIN HAD 1195 00:46:58,120 --> 00:46:59,360 NOTHING TO SAY ABOUT THE 1196 00:46:59,360 --> 00:47:01,880 STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 1197 00:47:01,880 --> 00:47:04,920 I'M GOING TO PRESENT SOME 1198 00:47:04,920 --> 00:47:07,440 EXPERIMENTS, SOME OF MY OWN 1199 00:47:07,440 --> 00:47:08,040 EXPERIMENTS, SOME OTHER 1200 00:47:08,040 --> 00:47:09,840 EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED BY OTHER 1201 00:47:09,840 --> 00:47:13,440 COLLEAGUES, THAT TELLS US THAT 1202 00:47:13,440 --> 00:47:15,240 THE TWO ARE ACTUALLY 1203 00:47:15,240 --> 00:47:17,200 COMPLEMENTARY AND ONE SETS UP 1204 00:47:17,200 --> 00:47:21,400 THE THEORETICAL BASIS UPON WHICH 1205 00:47:21,400 --> 00:47:23,160 ONE CAN PERFORM YOUR 1206 00:47:23,160 --> 00:47:24,840 EXPERIMENTS, BUT THE BIOLOGY 1207 00:47:24,840 --> 00:47:26,280 MUST CONSTRAIN THAT THEORY IN 1208 00:47:26,280 --> 00:47:28,520 ORDER FOR ONE TO MAKE SENSE OF 1209 00:47:28,520 --> 00:47:29,520 IT, ESPECIALLY GIVEN WHAT IT WAS 1210 00:47:29,520 --> 00:47:35,800 THAT I WANTED TO DO. 1211 00:47:35,800 --> 00:47:38,400 AS EVELINA PRESENTED, HE TALKED 1212 00:47:38,400 --> 00:47:40,560 ABOUT GLOBAL APHASIA. 1213 00:47:40,560 --> 00:47:46,720 THERE ARE MANY, MANY TIMES OF 1214 00:47:46,720 --> 00:47:51,400 APHASIA, ANOMIC, CONDUCTION, 1215 00:47:51,400 --> 00:47:54,440 TRANSCORTICAL, WERNICKE. 1216 00:47:54,440 --> 00:47:59,120 WE TALK ABOUT TWO TIMES. 1217 00:47:59,120 --> 00:48:02,240 BROCA ON THE ONE HAND AND 1218 00:48:02,240 --> 00:48:05,760 WERNICKE'S IN THE OTHER. 1219 00:48:05,760 --> 00:48:09,440 BROCA IN THE INFERIOR LEFT 1220 00:48:09,440 --> 00:48:10,440 FRONTAL CORTEX AND PEOPLE WHO 1221 00:48:10,440 --> 00:48:12,200 HAVE DAMAGE IN THAT AREA SPEAK 1222 00:48:12,200 --> 00:48:15,360 IN EFFORTFUL TYPE OF SPEECH AND 1223 00:48:15,360 --> 00:48:18,000 THE SECOND IS WERNICKE, THE 1224 00:48:18,000 --> 00:48:23,800 DAMAGE IS LOCATED MORE 1225 00:48:23,800 --> 00:48:25,800 POSTERIORLY AND PATIENTS PRESENT 1226 00:48:25,800 --> 00:48:27,200 WITH FLUID TYPE SPEECH, BUT 1227 00:48:27,200 --> 00:48:29,080 SPEECH THAT DOESN'T REALLY MAKE 1228 00:48:29,080 --> 00:48:30,120 THAT MUCH SENSE. 1229 00:48:30,120 --> 00:48:32,680 FULL OF WORDS THAT ARE MADE UP, 1230 00:48:32,680 --> 00:48:41,000 KNOWN AS NEOLIGISMS. 1231 00:48:41,000 --> 00:48:44,560 THERE ARE NOT JUST TWO TYPES OF 1232 00:48:44,560 --> 00:48:46,280 APHASIA, BUT MANY, MANY TIMES 1233 00:48:46,280 --> 00:48:48,240 AND THEY HAVE BEEN WELL STUDIED 1234 00:48:48,240 --> 00:48:52,400 IN THE APHASIAC COMMUNITY, I 1235 00:48:52,400 --> 00:48:53,800 SHOULDN'T SAY COMMUNITY, BUT 1236 00:48:53,800 --> 00:48:58,160 PEOPLE WHO STUDY APHASIA, THESE 1237 00:48:58,160 --> 00:48:59,800 HAVE BEEN VERY, VERY WELL 1238 00:48:59,800 --> 00:49:01,440 DOCUMENTED AND CATEGORIZED AND 1239 00:49:01,440 --> 00:49:07,560 SO ON AND SO FORTH. 1240 00:49:07,560 --> 00:49:10,560 ONE OF THE THINGS IS WE TALK 1241 00:49:10,560 --> 00:49:14,040 OFTEN ABOUT LANGUAGES BEING 1242 00:49:14,040 --> 00:49:15,840 PREDOMINANTLY A CORTICAL 1243 00:49:15,840 --> 00:49:16,120 PHENOMENON. 1244 00:49:16,120 --> 00:49:17,680 THESE HAVE BEEN DOCUMENTED IN 1245 00:49:17,680 --> 00:49:19,960 ALL TYPES OF APHASIA. 1246 00:49:19,960 --> 00:49:21,440 WE TALK ABOUT LANGUAGE AS A 1247 00:49:21,440 --> 00:49:23,680 CORTICAL PHENOMENON, BUT THERE 1248 00:49:23,680 --> 00:49:25,640 ARE ALSO SUB CORTICAL PHENOMENA, 1249 00:49:25,640 --> 00:49:30,520 SUB CORTICAL APHASIAS AS WELL. 1250 00:49:30,520 --> 00:49:32,680 PATIENTS WITH PARKINSON'S 1251 00:49:32,680 --> 00:49:35,040 DISEASE NOT ONLY PRESENT WITH A 1252 00:49:35,040 --> 00:49:38,280 KIND OF DISARTHRIC, EFFORTFUL 1253 00:49:38,280 --> 00:49:41,800 TYPE OF SPEECH, BUT DIFFICULTIES 1254 00:49:41,800 --> 00:49:43,160 UNDERSTANDING CERTAIN TYPES OF 1255 00:49:43,160 --> 00:49:43,720 ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE. 1256 00:49:43,720 --> 00:49:44,960 SO THERE IS A CONTRIBUTION OF 1257 00:49:44,960 --> 00:49:46,720 THE SUB CORTEX, WHICH I DON'T 1258 00:49:46,720 --> 00:49:48,800 WANT TO LEAVE OUT, BUT IT IS 1259 00:49:48,800 --> 00:49:51,040 SOMETHING THAT I DO TAKE INTO 1260 00:49:51,040 --> 00:49:52,240 CONSIDERATION WHEN WE ARE 1261 00:49:52,240 --> 00:49:55,240 TALKING ABOUT THE KIND OF 1262 00:49:55,240 --> 00:49:58,520 NETWORKS THAT SUBSERVE LANGUAGE. 1263 00:49:58,520 --> 00:50:00,080 SO I JUST MENTION THIS TO SAY 1264 00:50:00,080 --> 00:50:03,040 THAT WE ARE NOT ONLY TALKING 1265 00:50:03,040 --> 00:50:05,480 ABOUT CORTICAL PHENOMENA, BUT 1266 00:50:05,480 --> 00:50:06,320 SUBCORTICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO 1267 00:50:06,320 --> 00:50:07,840 LANGUAGE WHICH I WILL NOT FOCUS 1268 00:50:07,840 --> 00:50:09,440 ON, BUT I JUST WANT YOU TO KEEP 1269 00:50:09,440 --> 00:50:11,840 THAT IN THE BACK OF YOUR MIND. 1270 00:50:11,840 --> 00:50:16,360 SO LET'S TALK A LITTLE BIT ABOUT 1271 00:50:16,360 --> 00:50:25,320 BROCA'S AREA. 1272 00:50:25,320 --> 00:50:28,040 WE TALK ABOUT TWO AREAS, 1273 00:50:28,040 --> 00:50:29,240 BROCA'S, ABOUT SPEECH PLANNING 1274 00:50:29,240 --> 00:50:31,560 IT IS SAID AND PATIENTS WHO HAVE 1275 00:50:31,560 --> 00:50:32,840 DAMAGE THERE KIND OF PRESENT 1276 00:50:32,840 --> 00:50:37,360 WITH A TYPE OF GRAMATIC, 1277 00:50:37,360 --> 00:50:39,480 EFFORTFUL TELEGRAPHIC TYPE OF 1278 00:50:39,480 --> 00:50:41,160 SPEECH AND WE HAVE OTHER 1279 00:50:41,160 --> 00:50:46,240 PATIENTS WITH KIND OF FLUENT 1280 00:50:46,240 --> 00:50:47,800 NEOLOGISTIC TYPE OF AREA. 1281 00:50:47,800 --> 00:50:55,720 WHAT DOES BROCA'S AREA DO? 1282 00:50:55,720 --> 00:50:59,120 I'M GOING TO TRY TO CONVINCE YOU 1283 00:50:59,120 --> 00:51:00,840 THAT IT IS NOT JUST ABOUT 1284 00:51:00,840 --> 00:51:01,200 EFFORT. 1285 00:51:01,200 --> 00:51:02,440 THE WAY IN WHICH I'M GOING TO DO 1286 00:51:02,440 --> 00:51:07,480 THAT IS REALLY TO LOOK AT THE 1287 00:51:07,480 --> 00:51:09,280 PERFORMANCE OF SOME PATIENTS WHO 1288 00:51:09,280 --> 00:51:17,960 HAVE DAMAGE IN THIS AREA AND 1289 00:51:17,960 --> 00:51:19,560 WERE ASKED TO REPEAT CERTAIN 1290 00:51:19,560 --> 00:51:22,680 TYPES OF WORDS. 1291 00:51:22,680 --> 00:51:27,920 NOW, WE HAVE USED A CERTAIN -- 1292 00:51:27,920 --> 00:51:29,840 WE HAVE USED SPECIFIC TYPES OF 1293 00:51:29,840 --> 00:51:30,880 LANGUAGES TO TRY TO TAKE 1294 00:51:30,880 --> 00:51:33,120 ADVANTAGE OF ASPECTS OF THE THE 1295 00:51:33,120 --> 00:51:35,440 LANGUAGE IN ORDER TO SHOW THE 1296 00:51:35,440 --> 00:51:37,040 UNDERLYING PHENOMENON. 1297 00:51:37,040 --> 00:51:41,040 AND THIS EXPERIMENT HAPPENED TO 1298 00:51:41,040 --> 00:51:43,920 BE FRENCH SPEAKING PATIENTS 1299 00:51:43,920 --> 00:51:57,200 BECAUSE WE WANTED TO LOOK AT THE 1300 00:51:57,200 --> 00:51:58,400 PRONUNCIATION OF CERTAIN TYPES 1301 00:51:58,400 --> 00:51:59,800 OF WORDS. 1302 00:51:59,800 --> 00:52:03,160 PATIENTS WHO HAVE BROCA'S 1303 00:52:03,160 --> 00:52:04,600 APHASIA HAVE DIFFICULTY 1304 00:52:04,600 --> 00:52:05,920 PRONOUNCING CERTAIN TYPES OF 1305 00:52:05,920 --> 00:52:10,440 WORDS, NOT ALL TYPES OF WORDS, 1306 00:52:10,440 --> 00:52:12,240 BUT SPECIFICALLY CERTAIN TYPES 1307 00:52:12,240 --> 00:52:13,240 OF WORDS. 1308 00:52:13,240 --> 00:52:15,800 IF BROCA'S AREA IS ABOUT THE 1309 00:52:15,800 --> 00:52:17,840 EFFORT OR ARTICULATION OF 1310 00:52:17,840 --> 00:52:19,840 SPEECH, WHY SHOULD PATIENTS WHO 1311 00:52:19,840 --> 00:52:25,680 HAVE DAMAGE IN THAT AREA HAVE 1312 00:52:25,680 --> 00:52:28,160 MORE DIFFICULTY CREATING SOME 1313 00:52:28,160 --> 00:52:30,520 TYPE OF WORDS OVER OTHER TYPE OF 1314 00:52:30,520 --> 00:52:31,040 WORDS. 1315 00:52:31,040 --> 00:52:32,360 THAT DOESN'T MAKE SENSE. 1316 00:52:32,360 --> 00:52:35,240 WE HAD FRENCH-SPEAKING PATIENTS 1317 00:52:35,240 --> 00:52:37,040 REPEAT CERTAIN TYPES OF WORDS 1318 00:52:37,040 --> 00:52:38,840 THAT WERE VERY SIMILAR IN THE 1319 00:52:38,840 --> 00:52:40,160 STRUCTURE OF THESE WORDS. 1320 00:52:40,160 --> 00:52:49,440 SO WE HAVE WORDS LIKE LIQUID AND 1321 00:52:49,440 --> 00:52:50,480 [ FRENCH WORD ] 1322 00:52:50,480 --> 00:52:53,800 THESE WORDS, SOME PRESENT AS 1323 00:52:53,800 --> 00:52:55,840 CONTENT WORD, LIQUID IS A 1324 00:52:55,840 --> 00:52:57,640 CONTENT WORD AND OTHERS SEEM TO 1325 00:52:57,640 --> 00:52:59,240 BE MUCH MORE GRAMMATICAL IN 1326 00:52:59,240 --> 00:53:01,840 THEIR ORIGIN AND THEIR FUNCTION. 1327 00:53:01,840 --> 00:53:03,920 AND WE SIMPLY HAD THEM REPEAT 1328 00:53:03,920 --> 00:53:06,840 THE WORDS. 1329 00:53:06,840 --> 00:53:10,120 AND WE FOUND THAT THESE PATIENTS 1330 00:53:10,120 --> 00:53:12,440 HAD FAR MORE DIFFICULTIES, THEY 1331 00:53:12,440 --> 00:53:15,440 MADE MANY MORE TYPES OF ERRORS, 1332 00:53:15,440 --> 00:53:19,240 MANY TYPES OF PHONOLOGICAL 1333 00:53:19,240 --> 00:53:20,680 MISTAKES AND MUCH MORE 1334 00:53:20,680 --> 00:53:22,520 DIFFICULT, IT WAS MUCH MORE 1335 00:53:22,520 --> 00:53:24,160 DIFFICULT FOR THEM TO AR TAKE 1336 00:53:24,160 --> 00:53:28,160 LATE THESE WORDS THAT SEEM TO 1337 00:53:28,160 --> 00:53:29,520 HAVE THESE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS 1338 00:53:29,520 --> 00:53:31,840 EVEN THOUGH THE WORDS WERE 1339 00:53:31,840 --> 00:53:39,040 NEARLY IDENTICAL IN TERMS OF THE 1340 00:53:39,040 --> 00:53:41,240 PHONOLOGICAL MAKEUP. 1341 00:53:41,240 --> 00:53:42,040 THERE IS SOMETHING DIFFERENT 1342 00:53:42,040 --> 00:53:45,920 FROM GRAMMATICAL WORDS AND WHEN 1343 00:53:45,920 --> 00:53:47,240 WE ASKED THEM TO SAY THE WORDS 1344 00:53:47,240 --> 00:53:50,000 IN SENTENCES, THE PERCENTAGE OF 1345 00:53:50,000 --> 00:53:53,800 ERRORS TRIPLED EVEN. 1346 00:53:53,800 --> 00:53:56,640 SO THERE IS SOMETHING A LITTLE 1347 00:53:56,640 --> 00:53:58,480 UNUSUAL AND WE CAN'T SIMPLY SAY 1348 00:53:58,480 --> 00:54:01,600 THAT BROCA'S AREA IS JUST ABOUT 1349 00:54:01,600 --> 00:54:05,800 SPEECH PLANNING AND 1350 00:54:05,800 --> 00:54:07,640 ARTICULATION. 1351 00:54:07,640 --> 00:54:10,440 SO WHAT IS IT THAT WE -- WHAT IS 1352 00:54:10,440 --> 00:54:15,080 IT THAT WE ARE ABLE TO FIND? 1353 00:54:15,080 --> 00:54:18,280 SO THERE WAS INITIATELY A 1354 00:54:18,280 --> 00:54:19,720 HYPOTHESIS THAT SAID THAT THERE 1355 00:54:19,720 --> 00:54:23,840 WERE TWO CLASSES OF WORDS AND 1356 00:54:23,840 --> 00:54:25,520 THAT THESE WORDS WERE PROCESSED 1357 00:54:25,520 --> 00:54:26,840 IN VERY DIFFERENT WAYS. 1358 00:54:26,840 --> 00:54:29,720 IT WAS CALLED THE DUAL THEORY OF 1359 00:54:29,720 --> 00:54:31,320 WORD PROCESSING. 1360 00:54:31,320 --> 00:54:33,640 AND WE ARE FOUND THAT THERE WAS 1361 00:54:33,640 --> 00:54:35,440 PROBABLY ENOUGH EVIDENCE TO 1362 00:54:35,440 --> 00:54:36,720 SUGGEST THAT AT LEAST IN THE 1363 00:54:36,720 --> 00:54:38,560 BRAIN THESE TWO TYPES OF WORDS 1364 00:54:38,560 --> 00:54:40,120 WERE PROCESSED VIA DIFFERENT 1365 00:54:40,120 --> 00:54:41,680 MECHANISMS BECAUSE THEY COULD BE 1366 00:54:41,680 --> 00:54:42,840 DAMAGED DIFFERENTLY. 1367 00:54:42,840 --> 00:54:44,280 WITH DIFFERENT DEGREES OF 1368 00:54:44,280 --> 00:54:53,360 EFFORT. 1369 00:54:53,360 --> 00:54:54,480 THERE ARE SOME INVESTIGATIONS 1370 00:54:54,480 --> 00:54:59,240 THAT REALLY LOOKED AT NEURAL 1371 00:54:59,240 --> 00:55:02,160 RECEPTORS IN THESE AREAS BECAUSE 1372 00:55:02,160 --> 00:55:07,440 SOMETIMES WHEN WE LOOKED T THE 1373 00:55:07,440 --> 00:55:15,640 SITE OF ARCHITECTONIC OF BRAIN 1374 00:55:15,640 --> 00:55:18,320 REGIONS ARE NOT ABLE TO 1375 00:55:18,320 --> 00:55:19,360 DIFFERENTIATE ONE LEVEL OF 1376 00:55:19,360 --> 00:55:22,040 CORTEX TO THE NEXT. 1377 00:55:22,040 --> 00:55:25,160 SO WHAT DEFINES BROCA'S AREA? 1378 00:55:25,160 --> 00:55:29,600 AND SO THEY ACTUALLY DID A 1379 00:55:29,600 --> 00:55:31,360 NEURORECEPTOR STUDY AND FOUND 1380 00:55:31,360 --> 00:55:37,640 THERE WERE SIMILARITIES IN N1 1381 00:55:37,640 --> 00:55:39,920 RECEPTORS LOCATED IN BROCA'S 1382 00:55:39,920 --> 00:55:45,440 AREA AS WELL AS ANTERIOR 1383 00:55:45,440 --> 00:55:48,240 SINGULATE AND BASAL GANGLIA. 1384 00:55:48,240 --> 00:55:52,840 AND WE KNOW THAT AN TIER YEAH 1385 00:55:52,840 --> 00:55:56,040 SINGULATE AND BASAL GANGLIA ARE 1386 00:55:56,040 --> 00:55:59,080 INVOLVED IN ASPECTS OF WORD 1387 00:55:59,080 --> 00:55:59,480 PROCESSING. 1388 00:55:59,480 --> 00:56:01,040 AND SO WE THOUGHT THAT WELL, IF 1389 00:56:01,040 --> 00:56:03,520 THIS IS TRUE, THEN PERHAPS THIS 1390 00:56:03,520 --> 00:56:06,040 MIGHT BE AN EXPLANATION FOR WHY 1391 00:56:06,040 --> 00:56:08,640 IT IS THAT THESE PATIENTS WOULD 1392 00:56:08,640 --> 00:56:10,160 HAVE MORE DIFFICULTY WHEN THEY 1393 00:56:10,160 --> 00:56:12,520 HAD TO ARTICULATE THE WORDS IN 1394 00:56:12,520 --> 00:56:16,640 SENTENCES AS OPPOSED TO IN 1395 00:56:16,640 --> 00:56:17,720 ISOLATION. 1396 00:56:17,720 --> 00:56:19,040 BECAUSE THERE WAS SOMETHING ELSE 1397 00:56:19,040 --> 00:56:20,400 AT THIS INTENTIONAL LEVEL THAT 1398 00:56:20,400 --> 00:56:27,840 WAS A PROBLEM FOR THEM. 1399 00:56:27,840 --> 00:56:33,200 WE USED TO THINK WE COULD USE 1400 00:56:33,200 --> 00:56:34,960 PROBABLISTIC MODELS TO PREDICT 1401 00:56:34,960 --> 00:56:37,040 WHAT WOULD BE THE NEXT WORD, BUT 1402 00:56:37,040 --> 00:56:38,960 THOSE MODELS WOULDN'T REALLY 1403 00:56:38,960 --> 00:56:42,840 EXPLAIN WHY IT IS AND PERHAPS 1404 00:56:42,840 --> 00:56:44,240 EVELINA CAN SHARE WITH ME SOME 1405 00:56:44,240 --> 00:56:46,520 OF HER IDEAS ON THAT, WHY IT 1406 00:56:46,520 --> 00:56:52,200 WOULD BE THAT AT THE SENTENCE 1407 00:56:52,200 --> 00:56:54,280 LEVEL THESE WORDS, ALTHOUGH THEY 1408 00:56:54,280 --> 00:56:58,480 HAD DIFFICULTIES IN ISOLATION, 1409 00:56:58,480 --> 00:57:01,360 THEY HAD MORE DIFFICULTS AT 1410 00:57:01,360 --> 00:57:04,320 THE -- AREA WHEN MORE TOOLS CAN 1411 00:57:04,320 --> 00:57:06,280 BE BROUGHT TO BEAR TO SOLVE SOME 1412 00:57:06,280 --> 00:57:08,840 OF THE PREDICTIVE AREAS, 1413 00:57:08,840 --> 00:57:15,040 PREDICTIVE PHENOMENA. 1414 00:57:15,040 --> 00:57:17,680 SO WE THOUGHT THAT SINCE WE KNOW 1415 00:57:17,680 --> 00:57:23,640 THAT AREAS OF THE BRAIN, THE 1416 00:57:23,640 --> 00:57:25,840 ANTERIOR CINGULATE BASAL GANGLIA 1417 00:57:25,840 --> 00:57:27,800 AND NEURORECEPTORS IN THIS AREA 1418 00:57:27,800 --> 00:57:31,000 FOUND IN BROCA'S AREA, PERHAPS 1419 00:57:31,000 --> 00:57:32,560 THERE IS AN ATTENTIVE COMPONENT 1420 00:57:32,560 --> 00:57:34,960 THAT IS ALSO INVOLVED. 1421 00:57:34,960 --> 00:57:37,040 AND THAT THOSE AREAS ARE 1422 00:57:37,040 --> 00:57:39,120 ACTUALLY NOT AVAILABLE TO THESE 1423 00:57:39,120 --> 00:57:41,360 PATIENTS TO BE ABLE TO 1424 00:57:41,360 --> 00:57:43,840 ARTICULATE THIS WHEN THESE WORDS 1425 00:57:43,840 --> 00:57:44,760 THAT THEY ARE ALREADY HAVING 1426 00:57:44,760 --> 00:57:46,280 DIFFICULT WITH IN ISOLATION ARE 1427 00:57:46,280 --> 00:57:56,720 ASKED TO THEN BE PUT WITHIN THE 1428 00:57:56,720 --> 00:57:57,640 CENTENTIAL STRUCTURE. 1429 00:57:57,640 --> 00:57:59,120 WE ASKED NORMAL HEALTHY 1430 00:57:59,120 --> 00:58:01,440 INDIVIDUALS TO LISTEN TO SOME 1431 00:58:01,440 --> 00:58:04,280 WORDS THAT HAVE BEEN MANIPULATED 1432 00:58:04,280 --> 00:58:05,760 ACUSICALLY, SUCH THAT WE ARE 1433 00:58:05,760 --> 00:58:07,680 MAKING THOSE WORDS A LITTLE MORE 1434 00:58:07,680 --> 00:58:10,160 DIFFICULT TO HAVE TO PROCESS. 1435 00:58:10,160 --> 00:58:14,240 AND IF YOU ASK PATIENTS TO OR 1436 00:58:14,240 --> 00:58:15,080 SUBJECTS TO LISTEN TO THESE 1437 00:58:15,080 --> 00:58:17,880 KINDS OF WORDS PASSIVELY, WE 1438 00:58:17,880 --> 00:58:19,960 REALLY DON'T SEE ACTIVATION OF 1439 00:58:19,960 --> 00:58:25,280 BROCA'S AREA. 1440 00:58:25,280 --> 00:58:27,000 NOR THE THALAMUS, BUT WHEN WE 1441 00:58:27,000 --> 00:58:29,560 ASKED THEM TO MAKE A DECISION ON 1442 00:58:29,560 --> 00:58:31,920 THESE SUBTLY MANIPULATED 1443 00:58:31,920 --> 00:58:35,800 ACOUSTIC PHENOMENA, NOW WE SEE 1444 00:58:35,800 --> 00:58:38,080 ACTIVATION WITHIN BROCA'S AREA. 1445 00:58:38,080 --> 00:58:48,240 WE SEE IT WITHIN THE ANTERIOR 1446 00:58:48,240 --> 00:58:51,000 CINGULATE AND THE THALAMUS. 1447 00:58:51,000 --> 00:58:52,840 THERE IS AN ABILITY TO PROCESS 1448 00:58:52,840 --> 00:58:56,840 SOME OF THESE DATA AND THAT THE 1449 00:58:56,840 --> 00:59:00,000 PURPOSE AREA IS ACTIVATED AND -- 1450 00:59:00,000 --> 00:59:02,840 BROCA'S AREA IS ACTIVATED TO 1451 00:59:02,840 --> 00:59:03,920 PROVIDE ADDITIONAL RESOURCE FOR 1452 00:59:03,920 --> 00:59:05,760 YOU TO BE ABLE TO MAKE THOSE 1453 00:59:05,760 --> 00:59:07,040 KINDS OF DECISIONS. 1454 00:59:07,040 --> 00:59:09,640 IN THE PATIENTS WITH BROCA'S 1455 00:59:09,640 --> 00:59:11,280 APHASIA, THAT AREA IS DAMAGED 1456 00:59:11,280 --> 00:59:13,960 AND, THEREFORE, UNABLE TO 1457 00:59:13,960 --> 00:59:14,800 RECRUIT THOSE ADDITIONAL 1458 00:59:14,800 --> 00:59:16,640 RESOURCES THAT ARE REQUIRED FOR 1459 00:59:16,640 --> 00:59:22,000 YOU TO PRESENT THESE LETTERS, 1460 00:59:22,000 --> 00:59:23,840 THESE WORDS WHEN INCREASED 1461 00:59:23,840 --> 00:59:25,800 RESOURCES ARE REQUIRED SUCH AS 1462 00:59:25,800 --> 00:59:27,760 IN SENTENCE COME PREHENCE, EVEN 1463 00:59:27,760 --> 00:59:30,440 THOUGH ONE WOULD PREDICT, ONE 1464 00:59:30,440 --> 00:59:32,760 WOULD EXPECT USING PREDICTIVE 1465 00:59:32,760 --> 00:59:34,640 MODELS WOULD ACTUALLY HELP 1466 00:59:34,640 --> 00:59:37,440 SUBJECTS TO HAVE DECREASED AREAS 1467 00:59:37,440 --> 00:59:42,440 OF DECREASED ERRORS OF 1468 00:59:42,440 --> 00:59:44,720 PRONUNCIATION ERRORS THAN WE 1469 00:59:44,720 --> 00:59:45,040 ACTUALLY SEE. 1470 00:59:45,040 --> 00:59:48,280 THIS IS ACTUALLY WHAT WE DO SEE 1471 00:59:48,280 --> 00:59:50,440 IN SUBJECTS NORMAL INDIVIDUAL 1472 00:59:50,440 --> 00:59:53,040 SUBJECTS WERE ASKED TO LISTEN TO 1473 00:59:53,040 --> 00:59:54,480 NATURAL LANGUAGE. 1474 00:59:54,480 --> 00:59:56,040 IT IS THOUGHT THAT BECAUSE OF 1475 00:59:56,040 --> 00:59:59,080 THE PREDICTIVE ABILITY OF THE 1476 00:59:59,080 --> 01:00:00,440 LANGUAGE STRUCTURE, THESE 1477 01:00:00,440 --> 01:00:02,240 PATIENTS, WHEN YOU ARE LISTENING 1478 01:00:02,240 --> 01:00:05,760 TO NATURAL SPEECH, REALLY DON'T 1479 01:00:05,760 --> 01:00:10,080 RECRUIT AREAS OF BROCA'S AREA. 1480 01:00:10,080 --> 01:00:13,520 IT IS ONLY WHEN THE BROADBAND IS 1481 01:00:13,520 --> 01:00:15,640 NARROWED AND IT BECOMES MUCH 1482 01:00:15,640 --> 01:00:17,800 MORE EFFORTFUL WE SEE THAT KIND 1483 01:00:17,800 --> 01:00:19,320 OF ACTIVATION. 1484 01:00:19,320 --> 01:00:21,920 AND THAT'S WHAT WE WOULD HAVE 1485 01:00:21,920 --> 01:00:23,840 PREDICTED WOULD HAVE BEEN THE 1486 01:00:23,840 --> 01:00:30,320 CASE FOR THE BROCA'S APHASICS, 1487 01:00:30,320 --> 01:00:31,560 USING NATURAL LANGUAGE AND 1488 01:00:31,560 --> 01:00:33,200 MODELS WOULD HAVE HELPED THEM 1489 01:00:33,200 --> 01:00:35,800 PRODUCE THESE WORDS WITH LESS 1490 01:00:35,800 --> 01:00:37,240 DIFFICULTY, BUT WE FOUND THAT 1491 01:00:37,240 --> 01:00:38,760 WAS ACTUALLY NOT THE CASE BUT IT 1492 01:00:38,760 --> 01:00:40,560 IS THE OPPOSITE AND WE THINK 1493 01:00:40,560 --> 01:00:43,240 THERE HAS TO BE AN AREA IN 1494 01:00:43,240 --> 01:00:46,760 CONDITIONS OF INCREASED CORTICAL 1495 01:00:46,760 --> 01:00:48,560 DEMAND OR RESOURCE DEMAND. 1496 01:00:48,560 --> 01:00:50,640 THEY ARE UNABLE TO RECRUIT THAT 1497 01:00:50,640 --> 01:00:52,360 INTENTIONAL RESOURCE TO BE ABLE 1498 01:00:52,360 --> 01:00:53,640 TO PRODUCE THAT AND THEREFORE 1499 01:00:53,640 --> 01:00:58,240 THE PERFORMANCE DECREASES. 1500 01:00:58,240 --> 01:01:00,160 SO AS I MENTIONED BEFORE, WHEN I 1501 01:01:00,160 --> 01:01:08,040 WAS IN GRADUATE SCHOOL, 1502 01:01:08,040 --> 01:01:09,200 UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES ABOUT MIND 1503 01:01:09,200 --> 01:01:10,880 AND BRAIN WAS SUCH THAT IT WAS 1504 01:01:10,880 --> 01:01:12,920 SAID THAT THE BRAIN REALLY HAD 1505 01:01:12,920 --> 01:01:15,640 NOTHING TO SAY ABOUT THE 1506 01:01:15,640 --> 01:01:17,440 STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 1507 01:01:17,440 --> 01:01:20,720 BUT WE ACTUALLY ARE FINDING THAT 1508 01:01:20,720 --> 01:01:26,280 BY LOOKING AT SOME PATIENT DATA 1509 01:01:26,280 --> 01:01:27,960 THAT THE BRAIN CAN REVEAL TO US 1510 01:01:27,960 --> 01:01:30,120 THAT THE MIND MUST BE STRUCTURED 1511 01:01:30,120 --> 01:01:32,160 IN PARTICULAR WAYS SO IT CAN 1512 01:01:32,160 --> 01:01:33,920 CONSTRAIN SOME OF THE THEORIES 1513 01:01:33,920 --> 01:01:36,880 THAT WE HAVE TO THINK ABOUT IN 1514 01:01:36,880 --> 01:01:37,920 UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP 1515 01:01:37,920 --> 01:01:39,440 BETWEEN THE MIND AND THE BRAIN 1516 01:01:39,440 --> 01:01:42,840 AND LANGUAGE AND BRAIN. 1517 01:01:42,840 --> 01:01:45,120 SO AS I MENTIONED, THE THEORY IS 1518 01:01:45,120 --> 01:01:46,760 REALLY A FRAMEWORK OF 1519 01:01:46,760 --> 01:01:48,240 INVESTIGATION, BUT MUST BE 1520 01:01:48,240 --> 01:01:51,720 CONSTRAINED BY THE BIOLOGY. 1521 01:01:51,720 --> 01:01:54,440 AND THAT AT LEAST FOR THESE 1522 01:01:54,440 --> 01:01:55,200 PATIENTS, DAMAGE TO A PARTICULAR 1523 01:01:55,200 --> 01:01:56,840 PART OF THE BRAIN CAN TELL US 1524 01:01:56,840 --> 01:01:58,680 SOMETHING ABOUT HOW THE LEXICON 1525 01:01:58,680 --> 01:02:00,040 IS ORGANIZED. 1526 01:02:00,040 --> 01:02:03,640 AND IT HAS TO AT LEAST -- IT 1527 01:02:03,640 --> 01:02:04,840 DOESN'T TREAT ALL WORDS EXACTLY 1528 01:02:04,840 --> 01:02:05,640 THE SAME WAY. 1529 01:02:05,640 --> 01:02:08,120 THEY HAVE TO HAVE SOME SORT OF 1530 01:02:08,120 --> 01:02:11,680 GRAMMATICAL TAG, IT SEEMS. 1531 01:02:11,680 --> 01:02:13,840 AND THAT THESE TAGS, WHEN THEY 1532 01:02:13,840 --> 01:02:20,000 ARE GOING TO BE PLACED WITHIN A 1533 01:02:20,000 --> 01:02:22,040 SENTENCE, REQUIRE THE 1534 01:02:22,040 --> 01:02:24,120 RECRUITMENT OF CORTICAL AND 1535 01:02:24,120 --> 01:02:25,720 SUBCORTICAL INTENTIONAL NETWORKS 1536 01:02:25,720 --> 01:02:27,400 IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO PROCESS 1537 01:02:27,400 --> 01:02:35,440 LARGER INFORMATION. 1538 01:02:35,440 --> 01:02:41,440 OFTEN WE SAY OR SEE IN THE 1539 01:02:41,440 --> 01:02:44,600 LITERATURE MANY DIAGRAMS THAT 1540 01:02:44,600 --> 01:02:50,480 SHOW ACTIVATION OF POSTERIOR 1541 01:02:50,480 --> 01:02:55,120 TEMPORAL BROCA'S AREA, MIDDLE 1542 01:02:55,120 --> 01:02:59,200 TEMPORAL GIRUS AND CORTEX, I 1543 01:02:59,200 --> 01:03:01,960 WANT TO REMIND YOU LANGUAGE THAT 1544 01:03:01,960 --> 01:03:04,840 IS NOT A CORTICAL PHENOMENON, 1545 01:03:04,840 --> 01:03:07,600 BUT RECRUITS DEEPER SUBCORTICAL 1546 01:03:07,600 --> 01:03:09,960 PHENOMENON AND WE HAVE TO TAKE 1547 01:03:09,960 --> 01:03:11,200 THOSE PHENOMENA INTO ACCOUNT 1548 01:03:11,200 --> 01:03:16,400 WHEN TRYING TO COME TO EXPLAIN 1549 01:03:16,400 --> 01:03:17,680 THE KIND OF LANGUAGE PHENOMENA 1550 01:03:17,680 --> 01:03:20,400 THAT WE WANT. 1551 01:03:20,400 --> 01:03:25,640 AND WE WILL BE USING IN THIS NEW 1552 01:03:25,640 --> 01:03:28,840 LAB THAT WE -- HAS RECENTLY BEEN 1553 01:03:28,840 --> 01:03:32,920 CREATED AT NIDCD, COMPUTATIONAL 1554 01:03:32,920 --> 01:03:34,600 APPROACHES THAT EVELINA ALSO 1555 01:03:34,600 --> 01:03:36,640 MENTIONED TO REALLY TALK ABOUT 1556 01:03:36,640 --> 01:03:38,680 AND INTEGRATE AN UNDERSTANDING 1557 01:03:38,680 --> 01:03:40,800 OF NOT ONLY CORTICAL AREAS OF 1558 01:03:40,800 --> 01:03:43,800 THE BRAIN, BUT HOW THEY ARE 1559 01:03:43,800 --> 01:03:45,440 INTIMATELY INVOLVED WITH THESE 1560 01:03:45,440 --> 01:03:47,800 SUBCORTICAL AREAS AND OTHER 1561 01:03:47,800 --> 01:03:49,760 AREAS ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE 1562 01:03:49,760 --> 01:03:50,480 BRAIN. 1563 01:03:50,480 --> 01:03:52,840 BECAUSE IT DOES SEEM THAT THE 1564 01:03:52,840 --> 01:03:55,080 NETWORK IS A BILATERAL NETWORK 1565 01:03:55,080 --> 01:03:58,720 AND QUITE INTERCONNECTED, AS SHE 1566 01:03:58,720 --> 01:03:59,080 MENTIONED. 1567 01:03:59,080 --> 01:04:01,320 AND THESE KINDS OF NETWORKS ARE 1568 01:04:01,320 --> 01:04:05,640 REALLY NEEDED TO TRY TO 1569 01:04:05,640 --> 01:04:07,040 UNDERSTAND LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR 1570 01:04:07,040 --> 01:04:09,600 AND FOR US TO UNDERSTAND AND 1571 01:04:09,600 --> 01:04:10,760 PREDICT WHAT WE EXPECT SHOULD 1572 01:04:10,760 --> 01:04:13,520 HAPPEN WHEN PATIENTS ARE GOING 1573 01:04:13,520 --> 01:04:15,440 TO UNDERGO PARTICULAR TYPES OF 1574 01:04:15,440 --> 01:04:18,240 PHENOMENA AND HOW WE NEED TO 1575 01:04:18,240 --> 01:04:23,840 INTERVENE USING THESE KINDS OF 1576 01:04:23,840 --> 01:04:25,560 COMPUTATIONAL MODELS TO SHORTEN 1577 01:04:25,560 --> 01:04:27,880 RECOVERY FOR THESE PATIENTS. 1578 01:04:27,880 --> 01:04:31,960 IT IS A -- IT IS REALLY A 1579 01:04:31,960 --> 01:04:32,920 FUNDAMENTAL COLLABORATION 1580 01:04:32,920 --> 01:04:36,640 BETWEEN THEORY AND EXPERIMENTAL 1581 01:04:36,640 --> 01:04:37,040 DATA. 1582 01:04:37,040 --> 01:04:38,400 THEORY AND BIOLOGY. 1583 01:04:38,400 --> 01:04:41,760 IT IS INTERDISCIPLINARY IN ITS 1584 01:04:41,760 --> 01:04:43,680 NATURE INVOLVING COGNITIVE 1585 01:04:43,680 --> 01:04:48,160 SCIENCE, LINGUISTICS, COMPUTER 1586 01:04:48,160 --> 01:04:49,840 SCIENCE, DATA SCIENCE AND NEURAL 1587 01:04:49,840 --> 01:04:54,000 SCIENCE AND NEURAL IMAGING. 1588 01:04:54,000 --> 01:04:56,360 I WANT TO THANK A GREAT DEAL OF 1589 01:04:56,360 --> 01:04:59,440 PEOPLE WHO WERE INVOLVED IN 1590 01:04:59,440 --> 01:05:00,520 MAKING THIS KIND OF RESEARCH 1591 01:05:00,520 --> 01:05:02,240 POSSIBLE. 1592 01:05:02,240 --> 01:05:10,360 AND MANY OF THE PEOPLE WHO 1593 01:05:10,360 --> 01:05:13,600 TRAINED ME ARE LINGUISTS AND 1594 01:05:13,600 --> 01:05:15,120 NEURAL PHYSIOLOGISTS AS WELL. 1595 01:05:15,120 --> 01:05:17,440 WE NEED GRADUATE STUDENTS WELL 1596 01:05:17,440 --> 01:05:19,160 VERSED IN COMPUTER SCIENCE AND 1597 01:05:19,160 --> 01:05:21,040 DATA SCIENCES TO BE ABLE TO HELP 1598 01:05:21,040 --> 01:05:25,040 TO DO ALL OF THIS KIND OF WORK. 1599 01:05:25,040 --> 01:05:27,880 SO THAT'S REALLY WHAT I WANTED 1600 01:05:27,880 --> 01:05:28,680 TO SHARE WITH YOU. 1601 01:05:28,680 --> 01:05:33,720 IT IS REALLY A NEW LAB. 1602 01:05:33,720 --> 01:05:35,800 WE ARE GOING TO BE DOING THIS 1603 01:05:35,800 --> 01:05:37,200 KIND OF WORK GOING FORWARD AND 1604 01:05:37,200 --> 01:05:39,720 I'D LOVE TO HAVE A CHANCE TO 1605 01:05:39,720 --> 01:05:41,440 HAVE ANY DISCUSSIONS WITH YOU 1606 01:05:41,440 --> 01:05:46,520 ABOUT WHAT WE HAVE DISCUSSED AND 1607 01:05:46,520 --> 01:05:47,680 HEAR YOUR COMMENTS. 1608 01:05:47,680 --> 01:05:49,680 >> WONDERFUL, DR. BIASSOU. 1609 01:05:49,680 --> 01:05:51,680 THAT WAS REALLY FANTASTIC. 1610 01:05:51,680 --> 01:05:53,240 AND PERHAPS IF YOU CAN LEAVE 1611 01:05:53,240 --> 01:05:56,680 YOUR CAMERA ON AND YOUR 1612 01:05:56,680 --> 01:05:58,400 MICROPHONE ON AND DR. FEDORENKO 1613 01:05:58,400 --> 01:06:00,720 CAN TURN ON HER CAMERA, TOO, 1614 01:06:00,720 --> 01:06:04,000 WHICH SHE HAS NOW DONE, 1615 01:06:04,000 --> 01:06:06,240 ANTICIPATING, PREDICTING MY NEXT 1616 01:06:06,240 --> 01:06:06,520 WORDS. 1617 01:06:06,520 --> 01:06:13,160 SO IN ANY CASE WE WILL GO TO THE 1618 01:06:13,160 --> 01:06:14,440 Q & A. 1619 01:06:14,440 --> 01:06:16,800 AT LEAST GETTING STARTED WE HAVE 1620 01:06:16,800 --> 01:06:20,720 A CONTRARIAN WHO IS ABOUT TO 1621 01:06:20,720 --> 01:06:27,040 ARTICULATE HIS QUESTION FIRST. 1622 01:06:27,040 --> 01:06:29,600 SO THIS PERSON IS ASKING THE 1623 01:06:29,600 --> 01:06:32,200 QUESTION, IF LANGUAGE EVOLVED TO 1624 01:06:32,200 --> 01:06:34,240 MERELY COMMUNICATE, WHY DID IT 1625 01:06:34,240 --> 01:06:36,720 BECOME SO COMPLEX? 1626 01:06:36,720 --> 01:06:38,560 CONVERSELY, THERE IS A 1627 01:06:38,560 --> 01:06:41,120 CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE CALLED 1628 01:06:41,120 --> 01:06:43,600 TOKEPONA, I DON'T KNOW ANYTHING 1629 01:06:43,600 --> 01:06:45,600 ABOUT THIS, WITH ONLY 120 WORDS. 1630 01:06:45,600 --> 01:06:48,440 THAT IS APPARENTLY ONE CAN 1631 01:06:48,440 --> 01:06:50,320 COMMUNICATE AT A BASIC LEVEL 1632 01:06:50,320 --> 01:06:52,280 WITH ONLY 120 WORDS. 1633 01:06:52,280 --> 01:06:54,120 DOES LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY AND THE 1634 01:06:54,120 --> 01:06:57,880 LACK OF CERTAIN WORDS OR IDEAS 1635 01:06:57,880 --> 01:07:00,120 AND CERTAIN LANGUAGE SUPPORT 1636 01:07:00,120 --> 01:07:00,800 CHOMSKY'S THEORY? 1637 01:07:00,800 --> 01:07:02,480 THAT IS A QUESTION FOR EV, I 1638 01:07:02,480 --> 01:07:03,240 THINK. 1639 01:07:03,240 --> 01:07:03,720 >> SURE. 1640 01:07:03,720 --> 01:07:04,640 HAPPY TO TAKE IT. 1641 01:07:04,640 --> 01:07:07,960 I MEAN, I THINK THERE'S QUITE A 1642 01:07:07,960 --> 01:07:09,240 FEW DISTINCT IDEAS THAT ARE 1643 01:07:09,240 --> 01:07:10,160 PACKED INTO THIS QUESTION. 1644 01:07:10,160 --> 01:07:12,640 SO I WANT TO FIRST CLARIFY 1645 01:07:12,640 --> 01:07:12,880 SOMETHING. 1646 01:07:12,880 --> 01:07:17,360 SO IT IS CERTAINLY THE CASE THAT 1647 01:07:17,360 --> 01:07:19,920 LANGUAGE WILL REFLECT THE 1648 01:07:19,920 --> 01:07:21,640 UNDERLYING COMPLEXITY OF 1649 01:07:21,640 --> 01:07:21,880 THOUGHT. 1650 01:07:21,880 --> 01:07:24,160 WE SEE THIS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS, 1651 01:07:24,160 --> 01:07:24,360 RIGHT? 1652 01:07:24,360 --> 01:07:27,240 WE CAN MAKE INFERENCES BY HOW 1653 01:07:27,240 --> 01:07:28,880 SMART SOMEBODY IS BY THE WAY 1654 01:07:28,880 --> 01:07:30,480 THEY TALK AND WHAT THEY SAY. 1655 01:07:30,480 --> 01:07:35,160 WHAT I'M ARGUING AGAINST IS I 1656 01:07:35,160 --> 01:07:36,400 THINK THIS FLAWED INFERENCE, 1657 01:07:36,400 --> 01:07:39,240 LOOK AT US, WE ARE HUMANS, WE 1658 01:07:39,240 --> 01:07:39,760 ARE SO SMART. 1659 01:07:39,760 --> 01:07:41,800 ALSO WE HAVE LANGUAGE, 1660 01:07:41,800 --> 01:07:43,360 THEREFORE, WE ARE SMART BECAUSE 1661 01:07:43,360 --> 01:07:45,520 WE HAVE LANGUAGE WHICH DOES NOT 1662 01:07:45,520 --> 01:07:47,040 LOGICALLY BE THE CASE. 1663 01:07:47,040 --> 01:07:49,400 I'M ARGUING FOR THE VIEW WE GOT 1664 01:07:49,400 --> 01:07:50,760 MORE SMART, WHICH WE CERTAINLY 1665 01:07:50,760 --> 01:07:54,440 DID, WITH THE EXPANSION OF THE 1666 01:07:54,440 --> 01:07:58,320 ASSOCIATION CORTEX, AS WELL AS 1667 01:07:58,320 --> 01:08:00,920 SOME SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES. 1668 01:08:00,920 --> 01:08:04,640 WE ARE HIGHLY SOCIALIZED 1669 01:08:04,640 --> 01:08:06,440 CREATURES SO LANGUAGE CATCHES 1670 01:08:06,440 --> 01:08:07,040 UP. 1671 01:08:07,040 --> 01:08:08,840 WHY DON'T CHIMPS DEVELOP 1672 01:08:08,840 --> 01:08:09,160 LANGUAGE? 1673 01:08:09,160 --> 01:08:11,240 THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM IS 1674 01:08:11,240 --> 01:08:12,920 PERFECTLY FINE FOR WHAT THEY ARE 1675 01:08:12,920 --> 01:08:14,040 TRYING TO COMMUNICATE. 1676 01:08:14,040 --> 01:08:17,440 IT SERVES THE NICHE THEY HAVE, 1677 01:08:17,440 --> 01:08:20,320 WE HAVE A LOT MORE TO SAY SO WE 1678 01:08:20,320 --> 01:08:21,680 DEVELOPED WORDS FOR MORE 1679 01:08:21,680 --> 01:08:24,000 CONCEPTS AND SO ON AND SO FORTH. 1680 01:08:24,000 --> 01:08:25,840 I'M NOT SURE I'M FAMILIAR WITH 1681 01:08:25,840 --> 01:08:27,520 THIS PARTICULAR -- I'M NOT SURE 1682 01:08:27,520 --> 01:08:29,440 HOW THE ARGUMENT FROM TOKEPONA 1683 01:08:29,440 --> 01:08:33,240 WORKS. 1684 01:08:33,240 --> 01:08:35,800 THERE ARE CONTEXTS, THE ONES 1685 01:08:35,800 --> 01:08:39,280 THAT HAVE BEEN INVENTED IN 1686 01:08:39,280 --> 01:08:44,880 CONTEXT OF SCIENCE FICTION, 1687 01:08:44,880 --> 01:08:47,440 KLINGON, AND OTHERS, ARE 1688 01:08:47,440 --> 01:08:48,040 INTERESTING PHENOMENA. 1689 01:08:48,040 --> 01:08:49,520 I DON'T KNOW EXACTLY WHAT THEY 1690 01:08:49,520 --> 01:08:51,160 CAN TEACH US ABOUT NATURAL 1691 01:08:51,160 --> 01:08:51,720 LANGUAGE. 1692 01:08:51,720 --> 01:08:53,760 SO WE CAN CERTAINLY CONSTRUCT 1693 01:08:53,760 --> 01:08:56,080 NEW COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS. 1694 01:08:56,080 --> 01:08:59,760 WE ARE VERY FLEXIBLE BEINGS. 1695 01:08:59,760 --> 01:09:03,360 BUT I'M NOT SURE HOW THAT KIND 1696 01:09:03,360 --> 01:09:05,440 OF EVIDENCE CAN ARGUE FOR OR 1697 01:09:05,440 --> 01:09:06,920 AGAINST THE NOTION OF LANGUAGE 1698 01:09:06,920 --> 01:09:07,560 EVOLVING FOR THOUGHT. 1699 01:09:07,560 --> 01:09:09,120 IF THE PERSON WOULD LIKE TO 1700 01:09:09,120 --> 01:09:14,440 CLARIFY THE REASONING STIP -- 1701 01:09:14,440 --> 01:09:16,760 STEPS THERE, I WOULD BE GLAD TO 1702 01:09:16,760 --> 01:09:17,000 ENGAGE. 1703 01:09:17,000 --> 01:09:19,880 IT IS NOT OBVIOUS. 1704 01:09:19,880 --> 01:09:22,240 DOES LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY AND THE 1705 01:09:22,240 --> 01:09:24,840 LACK OF CERTAIN WORDS IN 1706 01:09:24,840 --> 01:09:26,040 LANGUAGES SUPPORT CHOMSKY'S 1707 01:09:26,040 --> 01:09:26,440 THEORY. 1708 01:09:26,440 --> 01:09:27,480 LANGUAGES COME UP WITH WORDS 1709 01:09:27,480 --> 01:09:29,480 THAT ARE USEFUL TO THEM. 1710 01:09:29,480 --> 01:09:31,440 MANY OF THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES 1711 01:09:31,440 --> 01:09:33,400 DON'T HAVE WORDS FOR EXACT 1712 01:09:33,400 --> 01:09:33,640 NUMBERS. 1713 01:09:33,640 --> 01:09:35,520 THEY HAVE WORDS FOR A FEW AND 1714 01:09:35,520 --> 01:09:37,760 MORE, BUT THEY DON'T HAVE WORDS 1715 01:09:37,760 --> 01:09:39,920 FOR ONE OR TWO. 1716 01:09:39,920 --> 01:09:46,600 THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN BY AN AMAZON 1717 01:09:46,600 --> 01:09:48,120 AMAZONIAN TRIBE. 1718 01:09:48,120 --> 01:09:51,960 THEY DON'T NEED TO BECAUSE THEY 1719 01:09:51,960 --> 01:09:52,960 DON'T FARM. 1720 01:09:52,960 --> 01:09:55,960 WHEN YOU HAVE TO ENUMERATE 1721 01:09:55,960 --> 01:09:57,320 CERTAINLY ENTITIES. 1722 01:09:57,320 --> 01:09:59,600 IT SEEMS INDEPENDENT OF THIS 1723 01:09:59,600 --> 01:10:01,320 ARGUMENT BUT I'M HAPPY FOR THE 1724 01:10:01,320 --> 01:10:04,120 PERSON TO FOLLOW-UP AND I'M 1725 01:10:04,120 --> 01:10:05,400 SORRY IF I MISUNDERSTOOD SOME 1726 01:10:05,400 --> 01:10:06,040 CLAIM TS. 1727 01:10:06,040 --> 01:10:07,680 >> MAYBE WE WITH GO ON BECAUSE 1728 01:10:07,680 --> 01:10:09,040 WE HAVE A LONG LIST OF QUESTIONS 1729 01:10:09,040 --> 01:10:09,920 HERE. 1730 01:10:09,920 --> 01:10:11,600 ACTUALLY, YOU RAISED AN 1731 01:10:11,600 --> 01:10:17,760 INTERESTING POINT WITH REGARD TO 1732 01:10:17,760 --> 01:10:23,040 NON-HUMAN PRIMATES DISCUSSING 1733 01:10:23,040 --> 01:10:23,280 BONOBOS. 1734 01:10:23,280 --> 01:10:25,640 I WAS CURIOUS ABOUT TO WHETHER 1735 01:10:25,640 --> 01:10:28,920 ANY WORK HAS BEEN DONE IN TERMS 1736 01:10:28,920 --> 01:10:30,480 OF FUNCTIONAL MRI AND OTHER 1737 01:10:30,480 --> 01:10:36,240 SOPHISTICATED STUDIES LOOKING AT 1738 01:10:36,240 --> 01:10:38,760 NON-HUMAN PRIMATES TO LOOK AT 1739 01:10:38,760 --> 01:10:41,200 CERTAIN AREAS IN THE BRAIN IN 1740 01:10:41,200 --> 01:10:43,960 HUMANS ARE INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE. 1741 01:10:43,960 --> 01:10:48,360 ARE THEY ALSO LIGHTING UP IN 1742 01:10:48,360 --> 01:10:50,040 BONOBOS OR CHIMPANZEES OR 1743 01:10:50,040 --> 01:10:50,320 WHATEVER? 1744 01:10:50,320 --> 01:10:51,160 >> THERE IS SUCH WORK. 1745 01:10:51,160 --> 01:10:54,040 I MEAN, THERE IS A LOT OF 1746 01:10:54,040 --> 01:10:57,320 EARLIER WORK ON BRAIN ANATOMY. 1747 01:10:57,320 --> 01:11:01,320 ESTABLISHING ALL KINDS OF 1748 01:11:01,320 --> 01:11:04,840 HOMOLOGISTS IN TERMS OF CORTICAL 1749 01:11:04,840 --> 01:11:08,040 AREAS AND TRACKS THAT WERE IN 1750 01:11:08,040 --> 01:11:09,840 EARLIER FORM IN PRIMATE 1751 01:11:09,840 --> 01:11:10,120 RELATIVES. 1752 01:11:10,120 --> 01:11:16,240 IN STUDIES THERE WERE MACAS AS 1753 01:11:16,240 --> 01:11:18,440 WELL AS THE SOCIAL MONKEY WHOSE 1754 01:11:18,440 --> 01:11:23,040 NAME I'M -- THE HIGHLY SOCIAL 1755 01:11:23,040 --> 01:11:27,080 MONKEY SPECIES, MARMOSETS, 1756 01:11:27,080 --> 01:11:27,280 SORRY. 1757 01:11:27,280 --> 01:11:29,240 WHEN YOU HAVE A KID, A LOT OF 1758 01:11:29,240 --> 01:11:31,840 YOUR BRAIN POWER GOES OUT THE 1759 01:11:31,840 --> 01:11:32,080 WINDOW. 1760 01:11:32,080 --> 01:11:34,480 AND A VERY COOL SET OF FINDINGS 1761 01:11:34,480 --> 01:11:36,320 IS EMERGING FROM THAT WORK. 1762 01:11:36,320 --> 01:11:39,640 KM, WHEN I FIRST SAW THESE AREAS 1763 01:11:39,640 --> 01:11:41,440 THAT EMERGE WHEN BASICALLY 1764 01:11:41,440 --> 01:11:44,360 MONKEYS ARE OBSERVING OTHERS' 1765 01:11:44,360 --> 01:11:47,320 COMMUNICATIVE SIGNALS, THE 1766 01:11:47,320 --> 01:11:53,800 TOPOGRAPHY IS EERILY LIKE THE 1767 01:11:53,800 --> 01:11:55,040 HUMAN SYSTEM. 1768 01:11:55,040 --> 01:12:02,120 THERE ARE SPECIFIC HYPOTHESIS TO 1769 01:12:02,120 --> 01:12:02,440 TEST. 1770 01:12:02,440 --> 01:12:03,840 DEVELOPMENTAL DATA IN THE NEXT 1771 01:12:03,840 --> 01:12:05,440 10, 20 YEARS, THOSE QUESTIONS 1772 01:12:05,440 --> 01:12:10,440 ARE HARD, EVOLUTIONARILY AND 1773 01:12:10,440 --> 01:12:11,800 DEVELOPMENTALLY WE START OUT 1774 01:12:11,800 --> 01:12:13,640 WITH DEVELOPMENTAL TISSUE THAT 1775 01:12:13,640 --> 01:12:15,480 IS IN TUNE TO SPECIFICS. 1776 01:12:15,480 --> 01:12:18,000 WE ARE USELESS AS BABIES. 1777 01:12:18,000 --> 01:12:20,440 EXTREMELY SO FOR HUMANS, BUT 1778 01:12:20,440 --> 01:12:23,200 OTHER PRIMATES ARE HELPLESS SO 1779 01:12:23,200 --> 01:12:26,760 WE NEED TO PAY ATTENTION TO CON 1780 01:12:26,760 --> 01:12:27,400 SPECIFICS TO SURVIVE. 1781 01:12:27,400 --> 01:12:29,640 WE HAVE A CORTEX THAT INITIALLY 1782 01:12:29,640 --> 01:12:33,160 RESPOND TO ALL SORTS OF 1783 01:12:33,160 --> 01:12:35,640 FEATURES, VOICES, FACES, ANY 1784 01:12:35,640 --> 01:12:36,880 SOCIAL RELATIVE INFORMATION AND 1785 01:12:36,880 --> 01:12:41,840 WE GET MORE SOPHISTICATED AND WE 1786 01:12:41,840 --> 01:12:44,720 LEARN ABOUT SOCIAL SIGNALS, 1787 01:12:44,720 --> 01:12:46,440 INCLUDING COMMUNICATIVE SYMBOLS 1788 01:12:46,440 --> 01:12:48,040 TO MAP BETWEEN FORMS AND 1789 01:12:48,040 --> 01:12:54,680 MEANINGS, THERE EMERGES A MOSAIC 1790 01:12:54,680 --> 01:12:56,320 IN THE COMMON AREA. 1791 01:12:56,320 --> 01:12:58,960 YOU CAN TEST IF THIS IS 1792 01:12:58,960 --> 01:13:00,040 RECAPITULATED IN HUMAN 1793 01:13:00,040 --> 01:13:00,400 DEVELOPMENT. 1794 01:13:00,400 --> 01:13:01,720 YOU CAN TEST THIS SO THERE 1795 01:13:01,720 --> 01:13:05,600 SHOULD BE A CHANGE IN INCREASING 1796 01:13:05,600 --> 01:13:07,200 SPECIFICITY FOR INCREASING 1797 01:13:07,200 --> 01:13:10,080 ASPECTS OF SOCIAL AGENTS THAT WE 1798 01:13:10,080 --> 01:13:10,440 OBSERVE. 1799 01:13:10,440 --> 01:13:15,480 FOR NOW IT IS A HYPOTHESIS. 1800 01:13:15,480 --> 01:13:17,440 >> EVELINA, CAN I FOLLOW UP? 1801 01:13:17,440 --> 01:13:21,760 ONE OF THE THINGS THAT WAS 1802 01:13:21,760 --> 01:13:23,440 MENTIONED WHEN I WAS GRADUATING, 1803 01:13:23,440 --> 01:13:25,240 WAS THE LANGUAGE THAT HUMANS, 1804 01:13:25,240 --> 01:13:27,680 NOT THAT THE COMMUNICATION IS 1805 01:13:27,680 --> 01:13:28,040 UNIQUE. 1806 01:13:28,040 --> 01:13:30,520 WE KNOW THAT MANY ANIMAL SPECIES 1807 01:13:30,520 --> 01:13:34,400 HAVE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS. 1808 01:13:34,400 --> 01:13:38,000 THAT THE WAY IN WHICH HUMAN 1809 01:13:38,000 --> 01:13:40,560 LANGUAGE IS USED BY HUMANS TO 1810 01:13:40,560 --> 01:13:41,600 EXPRESS -- TO HAVE COMBINATIONS 1811 01:13:41,600 --> 01:13:43,920 OF SOUNDS TO EXPRESS A THOUGHT 1812 01:13:43,920 --> 01:13:46,120 THAT HAS NEVER BEEN HEARD BEFORE 1813 01:13:46,120 --> 01:13:50,880 IS SOMETHING THAT IS UNIQUE. 1814 01:13:50,880 --> 01:13:53,240 HAVE YOU FOUND THAT IS NOT 1815 01:13:53,240 --> 01:13:53,840 UNIQUE. 1816 01:13:53,840 --> 01:13:55,520 AND THAT OTHER ANIMAL SPECIES 1817 01:13:55,520 --> 01:13:56,000 HAVE THAT? 1818 01:13:56,000 --> 01:13:59,040 >> AGAIN, YOU ARE TALKING ABOUT 1819 01:13:59,040 --> 01:14:01,360 COMPLEXITY IN THOUGHT LARGELY. 1820 01:14:01,360 --> 01:14:02,560 WE CERTAINLY KNOW 1821 01:14:02,560 --> 01:14:04,840 COMPOSITIONALTY IS NOT UNIQUELY 1822 01:14:04,840 --> 01:14:06,240 PRESENT IN HUMAN. 1823 01:14:06,240 --> 01:14:14,720 IF YOU WATCH CALADONIAN CROWS 1824 01:14:14,720 --> 01:14:17,040 GET FOOD OUT OOF BOTTLES, IT IS 1825 01:14:17,040 --> 01:14:20,640 CRAZY TO SAY HUMANS ARE THE ONLY 1826 01:14:20,640 --> 01:14:22,520 ONES TO COMBINE THESE. 1827 01:14:22,520 --> 01:14:24,600 WHAT I THINK HAS BEEN LEADING 1828 01:14:24,600 --> 01:14:28,440 THE FIELD FOR MANY YEARS IN NOT 1829 01:14:28,440 --> 01:14:30,160 QUITE A PRODUCTIVE DIRECTION IS 1830 01:14:30,160 --> 01:14:31,040 DISCOUNTING THE IMPORTANCE OF 1831 01:14:31,040 --> 01:14:33,640 STORAGE IN THE BRAIN AND A 1832 01:14:33,640 --> 01:14:37,880 SEARCH FOR SPECIALIZED CIRCUITS, 1833 01:14:37,880 --> 01:14:38,640 BRAIN REGIONS. 1834 01:14:38,640 --> 01:14:40,680 THERE IS A LONG HISTORY IN 1835 01:14:40,680 --> 01:14:43,960 HUMANS TO WANT TO BE SPECIAL, TO 1836 01:14:43,960 --> 01:14:44,640 BE CATEGORICALLY DIFFERENT FROM 1837 01:14:44,640 --> 01:14:47,480 OTHER ANIMALS. 1838 01:14:47,480 --> 01:14:52,440 FROM COPERNICUS WHO GOT CRAP FOR 1839 01:14:52,440 --> 01:14:54,600 HIS DISCOVERY AND PEOPLE WHO 1840 01:14:54,600 --> 01:14:56,640 WANT TO DISCOVER THIS REGION 1841 01:14:56,640 --> 01:14:58,080 THAT DOESN'T EXIST IN ANIMALS. 1842 01:14:58,080 --> 01:14:59,760 THE EVIDENCE FOR THAT IS JUST 1843 01:14:59,760 --> 01:15:00,360 NOT THERE. 1844 01:15:00,360 --> 01:15:04,760 TO THE EXTENT THAT THERE IS SOME 1845 01:15:04,760 --> 01:15:10,840 REGIONS THAT DON'T HAVE CLEAR 1846 01:15:10,840 --> 01:15:11,120 HOMOLOGUES. 1847 01:15:11,120 --> 01:15:14,240 THEY ARE THE FRONT CORTEX. 1848 01:15:14,240 --> 01:15:20,360 WHY PEOPLE ARE SO OBSESSED? 1849 01:15:20,360 --> 01:15:22,520 I DON'T KNOW. 1850 01:15:22,520 --> 01:15:23,840 ANIMALS ARE GREAT. 1851 01:15:23,840 --> 01:15:26,720 WE ARE AN INTERESTING ANIMAL. 1852 01:15:26,720 --> 01:15:28,360 I CAN TEACH MY DOG SOME WORDS. 1853 01:15:28,360 --> 01:15:29,200 IT IS TRUE. 1854 01:15:29,200 --> 01:15:30,840 I CAN AND I HAVE, TOO. 1855 01:15:30,840 --> 01:15:33,520 YOU CAN TEACH PARROTS WORDS, BUT 1856 01:15:33,520 --> 01:15:37,360 YOU CAN'T TEACH THEM TO COMBINE 1857 01:15:37,360 --> 01:15:38,600 THINGS IN NEW WAYS. 1858 01:15:38,600 --> 01:15:41,400 YOU CAN TEACH THEM WORDS BUT YOU 1859 01:15:41,400 --> 01:15:43,560 CAN'T TEACH THEM 10,000 WORDS A 1860 01:15:43,560 --> 01:15:45,840 3-YEAR-OLD OR 4-YEAR-OLD WOULD 1861 01:15:45,840 --> 01:15:46,040 KNOW. 1862 01:15:46,040 --> 01:15:48,320 THESE ARE ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE 1863 01:15:48,320 --> 01:15:50,840 AND PEOPLE SET IT ASIDE. 1864 01:15:50,840 --> 01:15:51,840 STORAGE IS IMPORTANT. 1865 01:15:51,840 --> 01:15:53,760 THE MORE EASILY YOU CAN STORE, 1866 01:15:53,760 --> 01:15:58,000 YOU CAN MAKE ABSTRACTIONS, FIND 1867 01:15:58,000 --> 01:15:59,320 GENERALIZATIONS, FIND 1868 01:15:59,320 --> 01:16:00,280 COMPARISONS THAT IS NOT APPARENT 1869 01:16:00,280 --> 01:16:01,800 IF YOU ARE STORING A SMALL 1870 01:16:01,800 --> 01:16:02,600 NUMBER OF ELEMENTS. 1871 01:16:02,600 --> 01:16:05,840 SOME OF THE PROPERTIES OF -- IN 1872 01:16:05,840 --> 01:16:07,280 LANGUAGE AND PERHAPS SOME 1873 01:16:07,280 --> 01:16:08,720 ASPECTS OF REASONING ARE 1874 01:16:08,720 --> 01:16:11,640 ACTUALLY FALLING OUT OF THIS 1875 01:16:11,640 --> 01:16:13,040 GREAT ABILITY TO STORE 1876 01:16:13,040 --> 01:16:14,480 INFORMATION AND TO FORM 1877 01:16:14,480 --> 01:16:16,520 ABSTRACTIONS. 1878 01:16:16,520 --> 01:16:18,440 AND I HAVE A PAPER WITH STEVE -- 1879 01:16:18,440 --> 01:16:23,000 WHO WORKED OUT A BUNCH OF MATH. 1880 01:16:23,000 --> 01:16:25,040 I THINK ABOUT THESE ISSUES FOR 1881 01:16:25,040 --> 01:16:29,840 HOW THAT COULD HAPPEN. 1882 01:16:29,840 --> 01:16:33,080 MATHEMATICAL PROOFS NOT 1883 01:16:33,080 --> 01:16:34,080 EMPIRICAL E6D. 1884 01:16:34,080 --> 01:16:35,040 I THINK WE SHOULDN'T DISCOUNT 1885 01:16:35,040 --> 01:16:36,840 HAVING A BIGGER BRAIN. 1886 01:16:36,840 --> 01:16:40,600 >> SO THE TWO OF YOU HAVE NOW 1887 01:16:40,600 --> 01:16:41,320 OPENED PANDORA'S BOX. 1888 01:16:41,320 --> 01:16:42,880 SINCE YOU ARE TALKING NOW ABOUT 1889 01:16:42,880 --> 01:16:47,040 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, I THINK THAT 1890 01:16:47,040 --> 01:16:49,160 WE ARE READY FOR THE NEXT 1891 01:16:49,160 --> 01:16:51,160 QUESTION, WHICH IS, HAVE DOGS 1892 01:16:51,160 --> 01:16:54,560 AND CATS BEEN SCANNED IN 1893 01:16:54,560 --> 01:16:56,840 FUNCTIONAL MRIs WHEN ONE 1894 01:16:56,840 --> 01:16:59,240 MENTIONED TO THE DOG OR THE CAT 1895 01:16:59,240 --> 01:17:00,680 THEIR NAME, YOU KNOW? 1896 01:17:00,680 --> 01:17:02,400 DOES THAT LIGHT UP SOMETHING IN 1897 01:17:02,400 --> 01:17:06,480 THEIR BRAIN AND IS IT IN SOME 1898 01:17:06,480 --> 01:17:09,480 SORT OF ANALOGOUS AREA IN THE 1899 01:17:09,480 --> 01:17:11,040 DOG OR CAT BRAIN TO THE HUMAN 1900 01:17:11,040 --> 01:17:11,240 BRAIN? 1901 01:17:11,240 --> 01:17:11,760 >> I DON'T KNOW. 1902 01:17:11,760 --> 01:17:13,440 THERE IS A LITTLE BIT OF WORDS. 1903 01:17:13,440 --> 01:17:19,000 IT IS A GROWING LIKE DOGNITION, 1904 01:17:19,000 --> 01:17:20,600 DOG COGNITION. 1905 01:17:20,600 --> 01:17:22,480 >> THEY HAVE DEFINITELY USED 1906 01:17:22,480 --> 01:17:28,360 CATS TO BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND 1907 01:17:28,360 --> 01:17:33,920 THE ROLE OF THE THALAMUS IN 1908 01:17:33,920 --> 01:17:38,000 MODULATING CORTICAL ACTIVITY IN 1909 01:17:38,000 --> 01:17:39,240 THE AUDITORY CORTEX. 1910 01:17:39,240 --> 01:17:40,440 WHETHER THAT IS ASSOCIATED TO 1911 01:17:40,440 --> 01:17:42,440 LANGUAGE ENTITIES LIKE THE CAT'S 1912 01:17:42,440 --> 01:17:45,040 NAME AND SO ON, WE DON'T KNOW. 1913 01:17:45,040 --> 01:17:47,200 BUT WE DO USE OTHER ANIMALS TO 1914 01:17:47,200 --> 01:17:49,240 UNDERSTAND WHAT IS HAPPENING 1915 01:17:49,240 --> 01:17:53,760 WITHIN THE HUMAN BRAIN, IN TERMS 1916 01:17:53,760 --> 01:17:57,200 OF ACTIVITY, YOU KNOW, FREQUENCY 1917 01:17:57,200 --> 01:17:59,440 MODULATION IN THE AUDITORY 1918 01:17:59,440 --> 01:18:01,520 CORTEX AND ITS EFFECT IN 1919 01:18:01,520 --> 01:18:02,720 UNDERSTANDING FEEDBACK 1920 01:18:02,720 --> 01:18:04,000 MECHANISMS AND FEEDBACK LOOPS 1921 01:18:04,000 --> 01:18:05,800 FROM THE THALAMUS TO THE CORTEX 1922 01:18:05,800 --> 01:18:08,960 AND BACK TO THE THALAMUS. 1923 01:18:08,960 --> 01:18:11,040 YES, WE DO LOOK AT, I MEAN, THE 1924 01:18:11,040 --> 01:18:12,520 FIELD IN GENERAL DOES LOOK AT 1925 01:18:12,520 --> 01:18:14,000 MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMALS 1926 01:18:14,000 --> 01:18:16,200 TO TRY TO ANSWER THOSE TYPES OF 1927 01:18:16,200 --> 01:18:18,120 QUESTIONS AND THEN USE THE 1928 01:18:18,120 --> 01:18:20,200 NONINVASIVE IMAGING TK NICS TO 1929 01:18:20,200 --> 01:18:23,840 CONFIRM THAT IN HUMANS. 1930 01:18:23,840 --> 01:18:26,080 >> SPEAKING OF PANDORA, ANOTHER 1931 01:18:26,080 --> 01:18:29,440 QUESTION THAT HAS COME UP HAS TO 1932 01:18:29,440 --> 01:18:31,600 DO WITH THE -- MAYBE THIS IS 1933 01:18:31,600 --> 01:18:33,880 JUST A MISUNDERSTANDING OF SOME 1934 01:18:33,880 --> 01:18:35,800 OF THE THINGS THE TWO OF YOU 1935 01:18:35,800 --> 01:18:36,720 HAVE PRESENTED. 1936 01:18:36,720 --> 01:18:38,680 A LOT OF THESE IMAGES OF THE 1937 01:18:38,680 --> 01:18:41,000 BRAIN SHOW CERTAIN AREAS OF THE 1938 01:18:41,000 --> 01:18:42,080 CORTEX THAT LIGHT UP. 1939 01:18:42,080 --> 01:18:45,000 OR IN SOME CASES, NADIA SHOWED 1940 01:18:45,000 --> 01:18:48,880 SOME LIGHTING UP OF AREAS IN THE 1941 01:18:48,880 --> 01:18:50,680 THALAMUS OR BASAL GANGLIA OR 1942 01:18:50,680 --> 01:18:51,720 WHAT HAVE YOU. 1943 01:18:51,720 --> 01:18:59,800 ARE THERE ANY WAYS OF IMAGING 1944 01:18:59,800 --> 01:19:01,960 LIKE NETWORKS OR TRACKS OR 1945 01:19:01,960 --> 01:19:04,840 SOMETHING THAT INVOLVES MULTIPLE 1946 01:19:04,840 --> 01:19:06,280 COMPONENTS WORKING TOGETHER IN 1947 01:19:06,280 --> 01:19:08,920 SOME SORT OF A SYNERGISTIC WAY? 1948 01:19:08,920 --> 01:19:10,440 IS 1949 01:19:10,440 --> 01:19:11,240 >> YES. 1950 01:19:11,240 --> 01:19:13,240 THERE ARE -- THERE IS A WHOLE 1951 01:19:13,240 --> 01:19:15,640 FIELD OF LOOKING AT NETWORK 1952 01:19:15,640 --> 01:19:17,400 NEUROSCIENCE WHERE WE ARE REALLY 1953 01:19:17,400 --> 01:19:18,960 LOOKING AT THE CONNECTIVITY OF 1954 01:19:18,960 --> 01:19:20,600 THESE AREAS AND NOT JUST 1955 01:19:20,600 --> 01:19:24,800 PARTICULAR AREAS OF CORTICAL 1956 01:19:24,800 --> 01:19:25,080 ACTIVATION. 1957 01:19:25,080 --> 01:19:27,120 IN FACT, THE LAB THAT WE HAVE 1958 01:19:27,120 --> 01:19:29,000 JUST RECENTLY STARTED IS FOCUSED 1959 01:19:29,000 --> 01:19:29,840 ON THAT. 1960 01:19:29,840 --> 01:19:32,520 I DID NOT SHOW THAT TO YOU 1961 01:19:32,520 --> 01:19:34,080 BECAUSE WE STILL HAVE A LOT OF 1962 01:19:34,080 --> 01:19:36,440 DATA WE ARE STILL ANALYZING, BUT 1963 01:19:36,440 --> 01:19:37,960 WE ARE ACTUALLY INTERESTED IN 1964 01:19:37,960 --> 01:19:40,960 THE INTERCONNECTIVITY OF THESE 1965 01:19:40,960 --> 01:19:41,160 AREAS. 1966 01:19:41,160 --> 01:19:45,480 AND LOOKING AT HOW THOSE 1967 01:19:45,480 --> 01:19:46,680 CONNECTIVITIES CHANGE AS A 1968 01:19:46,680 --> 01:19:51,640 FUNCTION OF INJURY, AS A 1969 01:19:51,640 --> 01:19:53,800 FUNCTION OF SURGERY AND WE HAVE 1970 01:19:53,800 --> 01:19:55,640 BEEN ABLE TO AT LEAST 1971 01:19:55,640 --> 01:20:00,800 PRELIMINARY DATA SHOWS THAT IT 1972 01:20:00,800 --> 01:20:02,720 IS NOT JUST A REWORKING OF JUST 1973 01:20:02,720 --> 01:20:03,720 A LOCAL NETWORK. 1974 01:20:03,720 --> 01:20:08,440 WE DO HAVE THAT, BUT WE HAVE 1975 01:20:08,440 --> 01:20:09,760 ALSO, YOU KNOW, CHANGES IN WIDE 1976 01:20:09,760 --> 01:20:11,440 NETWORK CHANGES EVEN ON THE 1977 01:20:11,440 --> 01:20:16,920 OTHER SIDE OF THE -- THE 1978 01:20:16,920 --> 01:20:17,760 CONTRALATERAL SIDE OF THE BRAIN. 1979 01:20:17,760 --> 01:20:20,520 THE FIELD IS LOOKING AT 1980 01:20:20,520 --> 01:20:22,480 CONNECTIVITY TO BETTER 1981 01:20:22,480 --> 01:20:23,840 UNDERSTAND THESE BEHAVIORAL 1982 01:20:23,840 --> 01:20:26,680 METRICS AND I THINK THEY ARE 1983 01:20:26,680 --> 01:20:31,400 ALSO LOOKING AT MULTIMODAL 1984 01:20:31,400 --> 01:20:34,480 IMAGING TO TRY TO UNDERSTAND 1985 01:20:34,480 --> 01:20:37,520 MANY ASPECTS OF THE BEHAVIOR. 1986 01:20:37,520 --> 01:20:38,560 >> MM-HMM. 1987 01:20:38,560 --> 01:20:39,400 OKAY. 1988 01:20:39,400 --> 01:20:42,480 NOW, EV RAISED THE QUESTION OF 1989 01:20:42,480 --> 01:20:45,440 SORT OF CAPACITY BEING A MAJOR 1990 01:20:45,440 --> 01:20:46,360 COMPONENT OF THIS. 1991 01:20:46,360 --> 01:20:49,560 THAT MAYBE IT IS THAT ONE HAS TO 1992 01:20:49,560 --> 01:20:52,720 HAVE A CERTAIN SCALE IN ORDER TO 1993 01:20:52,720 --> 01:20:57,520 SORT OF MAKE THE QUANTUM JUMP 1994 01:20:57,520 --> 01:21:00,880 FROM JUST A FEW SCATTERED WORDS 1995 01:21:00,880 --> 01:21:02,640 OR GRUNTS OR WHATEVER TO A 1996 01:21:02,640 --> 01:21:05,800 LANGUAGE. 1997 01:21:05,800 --> 01:21:12,440 SO THERE WAS AN ARTICLE ONLINE A 1998 01:21:12,440 --> 01:21:14,040 FEW DAYS AGO WHICH THE 1999 01:21:14,040 --> 01:21:15,840 QUESTIONER DID NOT READ, JUST 2000 01:21:15,840 --> 01:21:17,760 READ THE HEADLINE, NOT THE 2001 01:21:17,760 --> 01:21:18,040 ARTICLE. 2002 01:21:18,040 --> 01:21:19,880 ALWAYS A DANGEROUS THING TO DO, 2003 01:21:19,880 --> 01:21:22,520 BUT IN ANY CASE, THE QUESTION 2004 01:21:22,520 --> 01:21:26,320 HAD TO DO WITH BRAIN ORGANOIDS 2005 01:21:26,320 --> 01:21:31,000 AND WHETHER BRAIN ORGANOIDS CAN 2006 01:21:31,000 --> 01:21:32,040 DEVELOP CONSCIOUSNESS? 2007 01:21:32,040 --> 01:21:35,640 THIS MAY BE A PURELY SPECULATIVE 2008 01:21:35,640 --> 01:21:37,240 OR PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTION, BUT 2009 01:21:37,240 --> 01:21:38,520 THIS IS AN INTERESTING 2010 01:21:38,520 --> 01:21:40,240 DISCUSSION AND DO EITHER OF YOU 2011 01:21:40,240 --> 01:21:42,200 HAVE ANY THOUGHTS WITH REGARD TO 2012 01:21:42,200 --> 01:21:42,960 THAT QUESTION? 2013 01:21:42,960 --> 01:21:46,480 >> EV, I WILL LET YOU TAKE THAT. 2014 01:21:46,480 --> 01:21:50,400 >> SO I DON'T GENERALLY THINK 2015 01:21:50,400 --> 01:21:52,320 TOO MUCH ABOUT ORGANIZE, BUT 2016 01:21:52,320 --> 01:21:53,840 THERE IS A LOT OF DISCUSSION 2017 01:21:53,840 --> 01:21:58,120 ALONG THESE LINES ABOUT 2018 01:21:58,120 --> 01:21:59,200 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. 2019 01:21:59,200 --> 01:22:01,280 AS THESE LANGUAGE MODELS ARE 2020 01:22:01,280 --> 01:22:03,520 GETTING SMARTER, ANOTHER VERY 2021 01:22:03,520 --> 01:22:04,760 INTERESTING PLACE WHERE LANGUAGE 2022 01:22:04,760 --> 01:22:06,960 AND THOUGHT GET CONFLATED AND I 2023 01:22:06,960 --> 01:22:08,640 WILL EXPLAIN WHY. 2024 01:22:08,640 --> 01:22:09,920 NORMALLY WHEN WE HEAR LINGUISTIC 2025 01:22:09,920 --> 01:22:11,640 INPUT IT COMES FROM A THINKING 2026 01:22:11,640 --> 01:22:12,000 BRAIN. 2027 01:22:12,000 --> 01:22:14,800 BUT SUDDENLY WE HAVE THESE 2028 01:22:14,800 --> 01:22:16,240 NETWORKS THAT PRODUCE COHERENT 2029 01:22:16,240 --> 01:22:18,200 TEXTS, SOMETIMES YOU CAN'T TELL 2030 01:22:18,200 --> 01:22:19,440 AT LEAST FOR A LITTLE WHILE 2031 01:22:19,440 --> 01:22:23,480 HUMAN GENERATED OR MACHINE 2032 01:22:23,480 --> 01:22:23,760 GENERATED. 2033 01:22:23,760 --> 01:22:25,720 THEN PEOPLE START ATTRIBUTING TO 2034 01:22:25,720 --> 01:22:28,000 THESE MODELS SOMETHING THAT GOES 2035 01:22:28,000 --> 01:22:29,800 WELL BEYOND THEIR LINGUISTIC 2036 01:22:29,800 --> 01:22:30,160 CAPACITY. 2037 01:22:30,160 --> 01:22:30,840 >> YES. 2038 01:22:30,840 --> 01:22:34,480 >> HOW CAN THESE MODELS GET 2039 01:22:34,480 --> 01:22:34,680 THERE? 2040 01:22:34,680 --> 01:22:35,000 THEY CAN'T. 2041 01:22:35,000 --> 01:22:37,640 OF COURSE, THERE ARE SOME 2042 01:22:37,640 --> 01:22:38,400 REGULARITIES OF THE WORLD THAT 2043 01:22:38,400 --> 01:22:39,880 GET REFLECTED IN LANGUAGE 2044 01:22:39,880 --> 01:22:42,440 STATISTICS SO IT APPEARS THEY 2045 01:22:42,440 --> 01:22:43,560 ACQUIRED SOME DEEP KNOWLEDGE. 2046 01:22:43,560 --> 01:22:45,120 THEY DON'T KNOW WHAT A TABLE IS. 2047 01:22:45,120 --> 01:22:46,040 HOW CAN THEY? 2048 01:22:46,040 --> 01:22:48,360 THEY ARE DISEMBODIED SETS OF 2049 01:22:48,360 --> 01:22:50,840 UNITS THAT TALK TO EACH OTHER 2050 01:22:50,840 --> 01:22:54,440 AND LEARN LINGUISTIC REGULARITY 2051 01:22:54,440 --> 01:22:54,800 REGULARITIES. 2052 01:22:54,800 --> 01:22:56,360 SOME PEOPLE HAVE SAID THAT IS A 2053 01:22:56,360 --> 01:22:56,680 BIG PROBLEM. 2054 01:22:56,680 --> 01:22:59,800 IT DEPENDING ON WHAT YOUR GOALS 2055 01:22:59,800 --> 01:23:00,880 ARE, I SUPPOSE. 2056 01:23:00,880 --> 01:23:03,760 IF MY GOAL IS TO HAVE AN 2057 01:23:03,760 --> 01:23:04,920 IMPLEMENTED SYSTEM THAT IS 2058 01:23:04,920 --> 01:23:06,800 PROBABLE, FOR ME, THAT IS GREAT 2059 01:23:06,800 --> 01:23:08,840 BECAUSE THESE MODELS SERVE ADDS 2060 01:23:08,840 --> 01:23:11,200 VERY GOOD MODELS OF THE SYSTEM I 2061 01:23:11,200 --> 01:23:12,640 STUDY, NOT A SYSTEM OF THOUGHT, 2062 01:23:12,640 --> 01:23:15,200 A SYSTEM THAT LEARNS WORDS AND 2063 01:23:15,200 --> 01:23:16,640 LEARNS HOW THEIR COMBINATIONS 2064 01:23:16,640 --> 01:23:18,320 APPROXIMATE SOME MEANING THAT 2065 01:23:18,320 --> 01:23:21,600 CAN BE LATER, SOME REASONING CAN 2066 01:23:21,600 --> 01:23:22,960 BE PERFORMED BY DOWNSTREAM 2067 01:23:22,960 --> 01:23:23,200 SYSTEMS. 2068 01:23:23,200 --> 01:23:26,520 THE WAY THESE MODELS ARE TRAINED 2069 01:23:26,520 --> 01:23:29,520 MAKES THEM GOOD CANDIDATE FOR 2070 01:23:29,520 --> 01:23:30,800 HOW LANGUAGE MIGHT BE CARRIED 2071 01:23:30,800 --> 01:23:31,720 OUT IN HUMANS. 2072 01:23:31,720 --> 01:23:33,440 I WAS RUSHING THROUGH AT THE END 2073 01:23:33,440 --> 01:23:37,480 OF MY TALK, BUT WORK FROM A FEW 2074 01:23:37,480 --> 01:23:39,200 GROUPS, INCLUDING OURS, EVEN 2075 01:23:39,200 --> 01:23:41,320 THOUGH THESE MODELS ARE NOT 2076 01:23:41,320 --> 01:23:43,720 BUILT AS MIND OR THE BRAIN, BUT 2077 01:23:43,720 --> 01:23:46,800 IN SOLVING TASKS, LIKE HAVING 2078 01:23:46,800 --> 01:23:48,760 SIRI TALK TO YOU THAT LIKE IT 2079 01:23:48,760 --> 01:23:49,280 DOES NOW. 2080 01:23:49,280 --> 01:23:53,360 THESE KIND OF THINGS. 2081 01:23:53,360 --> 01:23:54,960 SOMETHING ABOUT THE WAY THESE 2082 01:23:54,960 --> 01:23:57,080 MODELS ARE TRAINED MAKES THEM 2083 01:23:57,080 --> 01:23:59,760 PROVIDE A REASONABLY GOOD FIT TO 2084 01:23:59,760 --> 01:24:02,480 THE NEURAL REPRESENTATIONS FROM 2085 01:24:02,480 --> 01:24:04,720 HUMAN BRAINS AS THEY PROCESS 2086 01:24:04,720 --> 01:24:05,040 LANGUAGE. 2087 01:24:05,040 --> 01:24:08,640 WORK IN VISION HAS DRIVEN US TO 2088 01:24:08,640 --> 01:24:09,320 TRY THIS FOR LANGUAGE. 2089 01:24:09,320 --> 01:24:12,520 I THINK IT IS INCREDIBLY 2090 01:24:12,520 --> 01:24:13,320 EXCITING. 2091 01:24:13,320 --> 01:24:17,480 I WOULD NOT HAVE PREDICTED WE 2092 01:24:17,480 --> 01:24:19,480 COULD GET BEYOND, PUTTING BLOBS 2093 01:24:19,480 --> 01:24:22,440 ON THE BRAIN AND SYNTAX HAPPENS 2094 01:24:22,440 --> 01:24:22,640 HERE. 2095 01:24:22,640 --> 01:24:24,480 WE HAVE ACTUAL MODELS WE CAN 2096 01:24:24,480 --> 01:24:26,480 PLAY WITH, ARCHITECTURE, 2097 01:24:26,480 --> 01:24:27,600 TRAINING, OBJECTIVE FUNCTIONS 2098 01:24:27,600 --> 01:24:30,000 AND TRY TO FIGURE OUT WHAT ARE 2099 01:24:30,000 --> 01:24:30,840 THE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT 2100 01:24:30,840 --> 01:24:32,240 CONDITIONS FOR A MODEL TO HAVE 2101 01:24:32,240 --> 01:24:35,240 SO IT PROVIDES A GOOD FIT FOR 2102 01:24:35,240 --> 01:24:35,800 THE HUMAN BRAIN. 2103 01:24:35,800 --> 01:24:37,680 >> THIS GETS BACK TO THE ISSUE 2104 01:24:37,680 --> 01:24:39,400 OF MINDS AND BRAINS. 2105 01:24:39,400 --> 01:24:41,440 ARE WE TALKING ABOUT THE 2106 01:24:41,440 --> 01:24:42,760 ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN MIND 2107 01:24:42,760 --> 01:24:44,640 OR ARE WE TALKING ABOUT THE 2108 01:24:44,640 --> 01:24:44,840 BRAIN? 2109 01:24:44,840 --> 01:24:46,160 EVEN THOUGH THE MIND COMES FROM 2110 01:24:46,160 --> 01:24:49,240 THE BRAIN, YES, BUT WHEN WE ARE 2111 01:24:49,240 --> 01:24:54,040 LOOKING AT A.I. AND SOFIA, FOR 2112 01:24:54,040 --> 01:24:57,160 EXAMPLE, WHO THE SOPHISTICATED 2113 01:24:57,160 --> 01:25:00,640 ROBOT THAT IS REALLY ABLE TO 2114 01:25:00,640 --> 01:25:06,640 MIMIC EXTREMELY WELL WHAT HUMANS 2115 01:25:06,640 --> 01:25:08,520 DO, IT DEPENDS ON WHAT YOU WANT 2116 01:25:08,520 --> 01:25:09,880 TO USE THE DATA FOR. 2117 01:25:09,880 --> 01:25:14,840 IF WHAT YOU WANT IS TO THEN BE 2118 01:25:14,840 --> 01:25:17,560 ABLE TO INTERVENE TO SHORTEN 2119 01:25:17,560 --> 01:25:21,160 RECOVERY TIME, EVEN THE MOST 2120 01:25:21,160 --> 01:25:23,760 SOPHISTICATED A.I. MACHINE 2121 01:25:23,760 --> 01:25:24,480 LEARNING MODELS STILL WILL NOT 2122 01:25:24,480 --> 01:25:26,240 BE ABLE TO GIVE YOU WHAT YOU 2123 01:25:26,240 --> 01:25:32,240 WANT IN TERMS OF UNDERSTANDING 2124 01:25:32,240 --> 01:25:34,520 THAT OVERLAY OF HOW IT IS 2125 01:25:34,520 --> 01:25:36,640 ACTUALLY BEING DONE WITHIN THE 2126 01:25:36,640 --> 01:25:36,840 BRAIN. 2127 01:25:36,840 --> 01:25:38,480 I THINK ONE DOES REALLY HAVE TO 2128 01:25:38,480 --> 01:25:41,160 LOOK IN THE BRAIN TO REALLY 2129 01:25:41,160 --> 01:25:41,840 UNDERSTAND WHAT THOSE MODELS 2130 01:25:41,840 --> 01:25:45,280 ARE. 2131 01:25:45,280 --> 01:25:47,840 THE BRAIN DATA WILL CONSTRAIN 2132 01:25:47,840 --> 01:25:53,840 WHAT THOSE A.I. AND MACHINE 2133 01:25:53,840 --> 01:25:55,880 LEARNING ALGORITHMS WILL DO. 2134 01:25:55,880 --> 01:25:57,640 IT DEPENDS WHAT YOU WANT. 2135 01:25:57,640 --> 01:25:59,520 IF YOU WANT IT TO MIMIC AND 2136 01:25:59,520 --> 01:26:02,480 SIMULATE WHAT WE ARE DOING, 2137 01:26:02,480 --> 01:26:02,760 THEN, YES. 2138 01:26:02,760 --> 01:26:04,720 WE DON'T NEED TO UNDERSTAND AT 2139 01:26:04,720 --> 01:26:06,360 ALL WHAT HAPPENS IN THE BRAIN TO 2140 01:26:06,360 --> 01:26:08,280 BE ABLE TO DO WHAT THESE 2141 01:26:08,280 --> 01:26:11,160 COMPUTER, THESE ROBOTS ARE ABLE 2142 01:26:11,160 --> 01:26:11,840 TO DO. 2143 01:26:11,840 --> 01:26:14,840 AS YOU SAID, EVELINA, NONE OF 2144 01:26:14,840 --> 01:26:17,800 THEM WERE EVER -- NONE OF THESE 2145 01:26:17,800 --> 01:26:19,640 ALGORITHMS WERE CREATED OR 2146 01:26:19,640 --> 01:26:20,360 GENERATED TO EXPLAIN WHAT 2147 01:26:20,360 --> 01:26:22,000 HAPPENS IN THE HUMAN BRAIN, BUT 2148 01:26:22,000 --> 01:26:23,640 THE OUTWARD BEHAVIOR IS 2149 01:26:23,640 --> 01:26:25,560 REMARKABLY SIMILAR TO WHAT WE 2150 01:26:25,560 --> 01:26:25,720 DO. 2151 01:26:25,720 --> 01:26:30,560 BUT IT IS REALLY TALKING MORE 2152 01:26:30,560 --> 01:26:33,160 ABOUT THAT AN ORGANIZATION OF 2153 01:26:33,160 --> 01:26:35,280 THE MIND UNDERSTANDING RATHER 2154 01:26:35,280 --> 01:26:38,120 THAN HOW IT ACTUALLY IS 2155 01:26:38,120 --> 01:26:38,760 SUBSTANTIATED IN THE BRAIN. 2156 01:26:38,760 --> 01:26:40,880 IF YOU WANT TO INTERVENE IN THAT 2157 01:26:40,880 --> 01:26:42,520 BRAIN, YOU DO NEED TO UNDERSTAND 2158 01:26:42,520 --> 01:26:51,040 HOW IT IS REALLY -- NOSE NODES 2159 01:26:51,040 --> 01:26:52,240 AND, YOU KNOW, NETWORKS HAVE TO 2160 01:26:52,240 --> 01:26:53,200 HAVE A MEANING IN SPACE AND 2161 01:26:53,200 --> 01:26:58,200 TIME. 2162 01:26:58,200 --> 01:26:58,600 WITHIN THE BRAIN. 2163 01:26:58,600 --> 01:26:59,240 >> OKAY. 2164 01:26:59,240 --> 01:27:06,720 SO NOW WE HAVE SOMEONE THAT'S 2165 01:27:06,720 --> 01:27:08,440 GOING IN A DIFFERENT DIRECTION. 2166 01:27:08,440 --> 01:27:10,400 WE ARE GOING TO LEAVE THE DOGS 2167 01:27:10,400 --> 01:27:14,400 AND CATS BEHIND FOR A MOMENT, 2168 01:27:14,400 --> 01:27:17,800 AND INSTEAD THERE IS THE 2169 01:27:17,800 --> 01:27:18,760 QUESTION WHETHER OR NOT THERE 2170 01:27:18,760 --> 01:27:21,320 ARE -- IN A WAY, I GUESS THIS 2171 01:27:21,320 --> 01:27:23,800 DOES GO ALONG THAT SAME LINE OF 2172 01:27:23,800 --> 01:27:25,200 THINKING, ARE THERE SPECIFIC 2173 01:27:25,200 --> 01:27:26,640 GENES RELATED TO SPECIFIC 2174 01:27:26,640 --> 01:27:33,680 LANGUAGE COMPONENTS, SUCH AS FOX 2175 01:27:33,680 --> 01:27:34,000 P2. 2176 01:27:34,000 --> 01:27:36,960 >> I CAN BRIEFLY SAY SOMETHING. 2177 01:27:36,960 --> 01:27:41,680 SIMON FISHER, THE DISCOVERER OF 2178 01:27:41,680 --> 01:27:45,280 FOX P2 WHEN HE WAS A GRADUATE 2179 01:27:45,280 --> 01:27:47,400 STUDENT IN MONACO'S LAB, HE 2180 01:27:47,400 --> 01:27:48,960 SPENT THE REST OF HIS CAREER 2181 01:27:48,960 --> 01:27:50,520 EXPLAINING TO PEOPLE IT IS NOT A 2182 01:27:50,520 --> 01:27:51,920 LANGUAGE GENE. 2183 01:27:51,920 --> 01:27:54,040 THERE IS NO -- WE SHOULD NOT 2184 01:27:54,040 --> 01:27:56,440 EXPECT GENES TO CARVE OUT 2185 01:27:56,440 --> 01:27:57,640 COGNITION INTO BOXES. 2186 01:27:57,640 --> 01:27:59,880 THERE IS NOT ENOUGH GENES TO 2187 01:27:59,880 --> 01:28:02,120 HAVE A SPECIFIC GENE FOR 2188 01:28:02,120 --> 01:28:06,760 SPECIFIC GENETIC FUNCTIONS. 2189 01:28:06,760 --> 01:28:09,840 IT IS COMPLEX ON BEHAVIOR. 2190 01:28:09,840 --> 01:28:11,520 AUTISM RESEARCH IT HAS BEEN 2191 01:28:11,520 --> 01:28:14,000 STUDIED RECENTLY WHERE NUMEROUS, 2192 01:28:14,000 --> 01:28:15,720 NUMEROUS GENES HAVE BEEN 2193 01:28:15,720 --> 01:28:16,000 IMPLICATED. 2194 01:28:16,000 --> 01:28:18,080 SOME GENES HAVE SUBSTANTIAL 2195 01:28:18,080 --> 01:28:18,400 EFFECTS. 2196 01:28:18,400 --> 01:28:20,440 THE RARE SUBSTANTIAL MUTATIONS 2197 01:28:20,440 --> 01:28:21,640 CAN HAVE BIG EFFECTS. 2198 01:28:21,640 --> 01:28:23,800 IN MOST CASES IT IS A WHOLE 2199 01:28:23,800 --> 01:28:25,680 BUNCH OF GENES. 2200 01:28:25,680 --> 01:28:28,840 EACH OF THEM HAS A TINY EFFECT. 2201 01:28:28,840 --> 01:28:31,520 TRYING TO MAKE SENSE OF THAT IS 2202 01:28:31,520 --> 01:28:33,120 COMPLICATED AND THE ONLY 2203 01:28:33,120 --> 01:28:34,960 RELIABLE LINKS TO BEHAVIOR IS 2204 01:28:34,960 --> 01:28:38,400 MEASURES OF I.Q., ONE VERY 2205 01:28:38,400 --> 01:28:39,920 STABLE BEHAVIORAL MARKER WE HAVE 2206 01:28:39,920 --> 01:28:42,000 IN OUR DISPOSAL, BUT IN GENERAL, 2207 01:28:42,000 --> 01:28:44,840 NO, THERE IS NO SUCH THINGS AS 2208 01:28:44,840 --> 01:28:45,640 GENES FOR LANGUAGE AND FOR 2209 01:28:45,640 --> 01:28:45,840 SPEECH. 2210 01:28:45,840 --> 01:28:48,520 THAT SAID, IT IS CERTAINLY THE 2211 01:28:48,520 --> 01:28:50,240 CASE THAT CERTAIN SPEECH AND 2212 01:28:50,240 --> 01:28:52,880 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS 2213 01:28:52,880 --> 01:28:54,160 RUN IN FAMILIES FROM DYSLEXIA, 2214 01:28:54,160 --> 01:28:56,000 TO STUTTERING AND THINGS LIKE 2215 01:28:56,000 --> 01:28:56,200 THAT. 2216 01:28:56,200 --> 01:29:00,000 BUT AGAIN, IT IS NOT GOING TO BE 2217 01:29:00,000 --> 01:29:02,400 THE CASE THIS GENE ONLY CONTROLS 2218 01:29:02,400 --> 01:29:04,960 THIS ASPECT OF SPEECH AND/OR 2219 01:29:04,960 --> 01:29:07,040 LANGUAGE AND/OR ONLY THIS GENE 2220 01:29:07,040 --> 01:29:08,480 CONTRIBUTES TO THESE EFFECTS. 2221 01:29:08,480 --> 01:29:10,840 IT IS A MUCH MORE COMPLEX 2222 01:29:10,840 --> 01:29:11,240 INTERPLAY. 2223 01:29:11,240 --> 01:29:13,440 FOR THOSE INTERESTED, I WOULD 2224 01:29:13,440 --> 01:29:17,480 HIGHLY RECOMMEND, SIMON FISHER 2225 01:29:17,480 --> 01:29:22,000 HAS TWEET TORIALS ON TWITTER 2226 01:29:22,000 --> 01:29:24,520 WHERE HE GOES THROUGH THE BASIC 2227 01:29:24,520 --> 01:29:26,440 MISUNDERSTANDING OF PEOPLE 2228 01:29:26,440 --> 01:29:27,440 MAKING PRONOUNCEMENTS OF THESE 2229 01:29:27,440 --> 01:29:28,840 GENES BEING FOR LANGUAGE. 2230 01:29:28,840 --> 01:29:31,720 >> YOUR COMMENT THAT THERE 2231 01:29:31,720 --> 01:29:33,800 AREN'T ENOUGH GENES IN THE HUMAN 2232 01:29:33,800 --> 01:29:35,480 GENOME TO ACCOUNT FOR ALL OF THE 2233 01:29:35,480 --> 01:29:37,120 THINGS WE WOULD HAVE TO ACCOUNT 2234 01:29:37,120 --> 01:29:38,640 FOR IN COGNITION AND THOUGHT AND 2235 01:29:38,640 --> 01:29:45,640 SO FORTH SORT OF HARKENS BACK TO 2236 01:29:45,640 --> 01:29:46,920 COMMENTS THAT WERE MADE BACK IN 2237 01:29:46,920 --> 01:29:56,000 THE 1970s, THERE WEREN'T ENOUGH 2238 01:29:56,000 --> 01:30:05,000 TO EXPLAIN THE MOLECULAR 2239 01:30:05,000 --> 01:30:09,160 IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES THAT COULD 2240 01:30:09,160 --> 01:30:10,160 MUTE -- MUTATE. 2241 01:30:10,160 --> 01:30:13,000 THERE IS A SYSTEM BASED ON THOSE 2242 01:30:13,000 --> 01:30:14,800 GENES BUT NOT EACH GENE HAS A 2243 01:30:14,800 --> 01:30:15,160 SPECIFIC -- 2244 01:30:15,160 --> 01:30:15,840 >> RIGHT. 2245 01:30:15,840 --> 01:30:17,640 ONE TO ONE RELATIONSHIP. 2246 01:30:17,640 --> 01:30:18,600 >> FUNCTION IN THE SYSTEM. 2247 01:30:18,600 --> 01:30:20,400 SO IT IS AN INTERESTING 2248 01:30:20,400 --> 01:30:21,920 QUESTION, THOUGH, AND CERTAINLY 2249 01:30:21,920 --> 01:30:24,440 AN IMPORTANT ONE IN TERMS OF HOW 2250 01:30:24,440 --> 01:30:26,120 WE THINK ABOUT THE WHOLE 2251 01:30:26,120 --> 01:30:26,440 PROCESS. 2252 01:30:26,440 --> 01:30:29,200 SO THEN HERE'S ONE. 2253 01:30:29,200 --> 01:30:32,880 NOW WE'RE GETTING INTO THE 2254 01:30:32,880 --> 01:30:33,160 POLYGLOTS. 2255 01:30:33,160 --> 01:30:35,840 AND THERE IS THE QUESTION OF 2256 01:30:35,840 --> 01:30:38,240 WHETHER POLYGLOTS CAN ALSO 2257 01:30:38,240 --> 01:30:45,000 REMEMBER NAMES AND NUMBERS. 2258 01:30:45,000 --> 01:30:51,400 >> IT IS A VERY HETEROGENEOUS 2259 01:30:51,400 --> 01:30:51,680 POPULATION. 2260 01:30:51,680 --> 01:30:53,240 TO MY KNOWLEDGE TWO OR THREE 2261 01:30:53,240 --> 01:30:54,320 GROUPS WORK WITH THIS 2262 01:30:54,320 --> 01:30:54,720 POPULATION. 2263 01:30:54,720 --> 01:30:55,960 THEY ARE HARD TO RECRUIT AND 2264 01:30:55,960 --> 01:30:58,920 FIND AND I THINK IT IS A REAL 2265 01:30:58,920 --> 01:31:01,080 MISTAKE TO CALL THEM, TO REFER 2266 01:31:01,080 --> 01:31:02,160 TO THEM AS A GROUP. 2267 01:31:02,160 --> 01:31:04,000 WE HAVE BEEN STUDYING THEM AS 2268 01:31:04,000 --> 01:31:07,080 SUCH AND COMING INTO THIS I WAS 2269 01:31:07,080 --> 01:31:21,240 EXPECTING A LOT MORE HOME -- 2270 01:31:21,240 --> 01:31:21,560 HOMOGENEITY. 2271 01:31:21,560 --> 01:31:24,920 SOME ARE HUGELY SOCIAL AND GO TO 2272 01:31:24,920 --> 01:31:26,240 MARKETS AND STRIKE UP 2273 01:31:26,240 --> 01:31:27,880 CONVERSATIONS WITH STRANGERS. 2274 01:31:27,880 --> 01:31:30,480 I'M AN INTROVERT. 2275 01:31:30,480 --> 01:31:32,200 I USED TO SPEAK MULTIPLE 2276 01:31:32,200 --> 01:31:32,560 LANGUAGE. 2277 01:31:32,560 --> 01:31:34,480 IT IS DEAD NOW HAVING LIVED IN 2278 01:31:34,480 --> 01:31:36,000 THE U.S. FOR YEARS NOW. 2279 01:31:36,000 --> 01:31:37,640 THEY ARE GOOD IN DIFFERENT WAYS. 2280 01:31:37,640 --> 01:31:39,240 THERE IS A "WASHINGTON POST" 2281 01:31:39,240 --> 01:31:42,000 ARTICLE OF A GUY WHO IS A CARPET 2282 01:31:42,000 --> 01:31:44,160 CLEANER IN WASHINGTON WHO SPEAKS 2283 01:31:44,160 --> 01:31:45,520 50 LANGUAGES. 2284 01:31:45,520 --> 01:31:50,440 HE IS INCREDIBLY GOOD AT IMITATE 2285 01:31:50,440 --> 01:31:50,680 IMITATING. 2286 01:31:50,680 --> 01:31:51,400 YOU CAN SAY SOMETHING TO HIM IN 2287 01:31:51,400 --> 01:31:53,000 AN UNFAMILIAR LANGUAGE, HE WILL 2288 01:31:53,000 --> 01:31:54,240 REPRODUCE THE SOUND FORM. 2289 01:31:54,240 --> 01:31:56,000 IT IS INCREDIBLE. 2290 01:31:56,000 --> 01:31:57,000 REALLY, REALLY STRIKING. 2291 01:31:57,000 --> 01:31:59,960 SOME PEOPLE HAVE ACCENTS AND ARE 2292 01:31:59,960 --> 01:32:04,000 GOOD AT REMEMBERING WORDS. 2293 01:32:04,000 --> 01:32:05,160 THAT POPULATION DESERVES A LOT 2294 01:32:05,160 --> 01:32:08,640 MORE STUDY, BUT IT IS REALLY 2295 01:32:08,640 --> 01:32:08,840 HARD. 2296 01:32:08,840 --> 01:32:10,560 SOME KIND OF INTERNATIONAL 2297 01:32:10,560 --> 01:32:12,000 EFFORTS WOULD HAVE TO BE PUT 2298 01:32:12,000 --> 01:32:14,280 TOGETHER TO TRY TO GET ENOUGH OF 2299 01:32:14,280 --> 01:32:15,720 THESE INDIVIDUALS STUDIED SO WE 2300 01:32:15,720 --> 01:32:17,200 CAN MAKE SOME CONCLUSIONS THAT 2301 01:32:17,200 --> 01:32:19,640 APPLY TO THE POPULATION AS A 2302 01:32:19,640 --> 01:32:19,840 WHOLE. 2303 01:32:19,840 --> 01:32:21,960 >> IT SOUNDS LIKE, FROM WHAT YOU 2304 01:32:21,960 --> 01:32:25,520 ARE SAYING, WE DON'T EVEN REALLY 2305 01:32:25,520 --> 01:32:27,240 HAVE A GOOD IDEA OF HOW MANY OF 2306 01:32:27,240 --> 01:32:29,120 THEM THERE ARE OUT THERE. 2307 01:32:29,120 --> 01:32:30,600 IT IS NOT LIKE THESE PEOPLE 2308 01:32:30,600 --> 01:32:31,080 NECESSARILY ADVERTISE. 2309 01:32:31,080 --> 01:32:32,240 >> THAT'S RIGHT. 2310 01:32:32,240 --> 01:32:34,080 >> THE FACT THEY CAN DO THAT. 2311 01:32:34,080 --> 01:32:37,840 >> SOME OF THEM ARE REAL LONERS. 2312 01:32:37,840 --> 01:32:38,000 YEAH. 2313 01:32:38,000 --> 01:32:38,760 >> I SEE. 2314 01:32:38,760 --> 01:32:41,040 SO ANOTHER QUESTION ABOUT THE 2315 01:32:41,040 --> 01:32:41,840 POLYGLOTS. 2316 01:32:41,840 --> 01:32:47,640 AND I THINK THAT PROBABLY FROM 2317 01:32:47,640 --> 01:32:49,640 YOUR ANSWER TO THE PREVIOUS 2318 01:32:49,640 --> 01:32:51,720 QUESTION I COULD PREDICT THE 2319 01:32:51,720 --> 01:32:53,120 WORDS YOU USE TO ANSWER THIS 2320 01:32:53,120 --> 01:32:53,400 QUESTION. 2321 01:32:53,400 --> 01:32:55,320 THE QUESTION HAS TO DO WITH 2322 01:32:55,320 --> 01:32:58,480 CERTAIN STEREOTYPES OF POLYGLOTS 2323 01:32:58,480 --> 01:33:00,080 IN TERMS OF PERHAPS THERE ARE 2324 01:33:00,080 --> 01:33:03,920 MORE OF THEM THAT ARE AUTISTIC. 2325 01:33:03,920 --> 01:33:06,640 >> A LEFT-HANDED MALE. 2326 01:33:06,640 --> 01:33:07,560 >> YEAH. 2327 01:33:07,560 --> 01:33:17,640 SO YOU WOULD POOH-POOH THAT. 2328 01:33:17,640 --> 01:33:18,840 >> YES. 2329 01:33:18,840 --> 01:33:21,920 THERE ARE MORE MALE POLYGLOTS. 2330 01:33:21,920 --> 01:33:24,120 WOMEN WERE STUCK IN FRONT OF 2331 01:33:24,120 --> 01:33:24,920 STOVES. 2332 01:33:24,920 --> 01:33:26,520 THEY HAVEN'T HAD TIME. 2333 01:33:26,520 --> 01:33:29,440 I THINK UNTIL WE HAVE MORE RIGOR 2334 01:33:29,440 --> 01:33:30,960 IN STUDYING THIS POPULATION I 2335 01:33:30,960 --> 01:33:32,600 WOULD BE CAUTIOUS ABOUT DRAWING 2336 01:33:32,600 --> 01:33:34,520 ANY SUCH CONCLUSIONS CERTAINLY 2337 01:33:34,520 --> 01:33:36,960 FROM THE KIND OF DATA WE HAVE, I 2338 01:33:36,960 --> 01:33:38,320 WOULDN'T SAY THAT. 2339 01:33:38,320 --> 01:33:39,720 >> OKAY. 2340 01:33:39,720 --> 01:33:40,000 ALL RIGHT. 2341 01:33:40,000 --> 01:33:46,480 THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR THAT. 2342 01:33:46,480 --> 01:33:49,440 SO NOW THE QUESTIONS ARE JUST 2343 01:33:49,440 --> 01:33:49,960 FLOODING IN. 2344 01:33:49,960 --> 01:33:53,240 >> WE ARE SAYING THINGS THAT ARE 2345 01:33:53,240 --> 01:33:53,560 CONTROVERSIAL. 2346 01:33:53,560 --> 01:33:55,240 >> KEEP OUR HEADS ABOVE WATER 2347 01:33:55,240 --> 01:33:55,440 HERE. 2348 01:33:55,440 --> 01:33:58,480 SO HERE IS A QUESTION. 2349 01:33:58,480 --> 01:34:01,840 CAN DR. BIASSOU COMMENT ON THE 2350 01:34:01,840 --> 01:34:03,600 EMERGING EVIDENCE OF 2351 01:34:03,600 --> 01:34:06,920 BILINGUALISM OR MULTILINGUALISM 2352 01:34:06,920 --> 01:34:10,640 OFFERING SOME PROTECTION AGAINST 2353 01:34:10,640 --> 01:34:10,920 DEMENTIA? 2354 01:34:10,920 --> 01:34:13,000 >> WELL, THIS KIND OF GOES ALONG 2355 01:34:13,000 --> 01:34:14,000 THE SAME LINES. 2356 01:34:14,000 --> 01:34:17,000 NUMBER ONE, THE PATIENTS, THE 2357 01:34:17,000 --> 01:34:19,840 DEMENTIA PATIENTS, WHICH 2358 01:34:19,840 --> 01:34:22,960 DEMENTIA ARE WE TALKING ABOUT, 2359 01:34:22,960 --> 01:34:26,040 ALZHEIMER'S, FRONTAL TEMPORAL 2360 01:34:26,040 --> 01:34:28,040 DEMENTIA, VASCULAR DEMENTIA, 2361 01:34:28,040 --> 01:34:30,040 EACH GROUP IN AND OF THEMSELVES 2362 01:34:30,040 --> 01:34:32,240 ARE HIGHLY HETEROGENEOUS IN 2363 01:34:32,240 --> 01:34:36,120 TERMS OF LOOKING AT EARLY, 2364 01:34:36,120 --> 01:34:38,920 MODERATE, AND SEVERE DISEASE AND 2365 01:34:38,920 --> 01:34:42,480 BILINGUALISM IN AND OF ITSELF 2366 01:34:42,480 --> 01:34:45,520 ALSO IS A HETEROGENEOUS GROUP. 2367 01:34:45,520 --> 01:34:48,800 WHAT DEGREE OF BILINGUALISM? 2368 01:34:48,800 --> 01:34:50,080 WHEN DID YOU LEARN THE LANGUAGE? 2369 01:34:50,080 --> 01:34:51,640 HOW BALANCED IS YOUR 2370 01:34:51,640 --> 01:34:51,960 UNDERSTANDING? 2371 01:34:51,960 --> 01:34:54,800 CAN YOU SPEAK, WRITE, AND READ 2372 01:34:54,800 --> 01:34:56,600 WITH EQUAL PROFICIENCY? 2373 01:34:56,600 --> 01:35:00,280 SO THERE IS A TREMENDOUS AMOUNT 2374 01:35:00,280 --> 01:35:03,240 OF VARIABILITY IN ALL OF 2375 01:35:03,240 --> 01:35:05,800 THOSE -- IN EACH OF THESE 2376 01:35:05,800 --> 01:35:06,000 GROUPS. 2377 01:35:06,000 --> 01:35:07,720 SO YOU WOULD HAVE TO HAVE A 2378 01:35:07,720 --> 01:35:11,840 FAIRLY LARGE STUDY. 2379 01:35:11,840 --> 01:35:13,080 I DON'T KNOW THAT THERE IS 2380 01:35:13,080 --> 01:35:14,120 ANYONE WHO HAS DONE THAT. 2381 01:35:14,120 --> 01:35:17,080 SOME ARE LOOKING AT BILINGUALISM 2382 01:35:17,080 --> 01:35:19,000 AND TRYING TO ANSWER THAT AT 2383 01:35:19,000 --> 01:35:20,640 LEAST IN NORMAL INDIVIDUALS. 2384 01:35:20,640 --> 01:35:23,840 I DON'T KNOW THAT ONE HAS REALLY 2385 01:35:23,840 --> 01:35:26,520 BEEN ABLE TO EXAMINE DEMENTIA IN 2386 01:35:26,520 --> 01:35:28,400 THAT PARTICULAR WAY. 2387 01:35:28,400 --> 01:35:28,880 >> OKAY. 2388 01:35:28,880 --> 01:35:29,800 ALL RIGHT. 2389 01:35:29,800 --> 01:35:31,000 EV, DO YOU HAVE ANYTHING TO ADD 2390 01:35:31,000 --> 01:35:31,760 TO THAT? 2391 01:35:31,760 --> 01:35:33,960 >> I WAS JUST GOING TO SAY THE 2392 01:35:33,960 --> 01:35:36,240 GENERAL CLAIM THAT BILINGUALISM 2393 01:35:36,240 --> 01:35:39,200 TRAINS UP YOUR DOMAIN GENERAL 2394 01:35:39,200 --> 01:35:40,440 CONTROL SYSTEM IS HIGHLY 2395 01:35:40,440 --> 01:35:42,400 CONTROVERSIAL AND THERE ARE 2396 01:35:42,400 --> 01:35:43,880 MULTIPLE LARGE SCALE STUDIES 2397 01:35:43,880 --> 01:35:45,320 WITH THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE FAILING 2398 01:35:45,320 --> 01:35:47,840 TO REPLICATE THEIR ORIGINAL 2399 01:35:47,840 --> 01:35:49,800 CLAIMS. 2400 01:35:49,800 --> 01:35:51,640 A JUNIOR RESEARCHER AT HARVARD 2401 01:35:51,640 --> 01:35:53,880 AS A POST DOC, SHE HAS DONE 2402 01:35:53,880 --> 01:35:55,240 BEAUTIFUL WORK SHOWING A LOT OF 2403 01:35:55,240 --> 01:35:58,960 THE EARLY CLAIMS ABOUT FINDING 2404 01:35:58,960 --> 01:36:00,240 RESPONSES IN DOMAIN COGNITIVE 2405 01:36:00,240 --> 01:36:03,880 CONTROL AREAS ARE DUE TO TASK 2406 01:36:03,880 --> 01:36:04,920 DEMANDS. 2407 01:36:04,920 --> 01:36:05,640 YOU CONSTRUCT THESE VERY 2408 01:36:05,640 --> 01:36:07,920 ARTIFICIAL PARADIGMS. 2409 01:36:07,920 --> 01:36:09,640 I'LL SHOW YOU THIS CLUE, SAY THE 2410 01:36:09,640 --> 01:36:11,680 WORD IN FRENCH, I'LL SHOW YOU 2411 01:36:11,680 --> 01:36:14,040 THIS CLUE, SAY THE WORD IN 2412 01:36:14,040 --> 01:36:14,280 ENGLISH. 2413 01:36:14,280 --> 01:36:16,400 IF YOU MAKE PARADIGMS, I WILL 2414 01:36:16,400 --> 01:36:20,240 SHOW YOU A NATIVE SPEAKER OF 2415 01:36:20,240 --> 01:36:21,640 FRENCH AND YOU KIND OF NATURALLY 2416 01:36:21,640 --> 01:36:25,080 ADAPT TO SEEING, I KNOW THAT DAN 2417 01:36:25,080 --> 01:36:26,760 SPEAKS GERMAN AND NADIA SPEAKS 2418 01:36:26,760 --> 01:36:30,440 ITALIAN. 2419 01:36:30,440 --> 01:36:34,040 IF YOU MAKE PARADIGMS MUCH MORE 2420 01:36:34,040 --> 01:36:37,440 NATURALISTIC, A LOT OF THE 2421 01:36:37,440 --> 01:36:39,040 ACTIVATIONS DISAPPEAR. 2422 01:36:39,040 --> 01:36:41,680 WHICH IS NOT TO SAY THAT NO 2423 01:36:41,680 --> 01:36:43,880 CLAIMS HOLD WATER, BUT THAT 2424 01:36:43,880 --> 01:36:46,360 LITERATURE GENERALLY IS VERY 2425 01:36:46,360 --> 01:36:47,960 COMPLEX EMPIRICAL LANDSCAPE. 2426 01:36:47,960 --> 01:36:51,320 >> AND THERE IS EVEN THE ISSUE 2427 01:36:51,320 --> 01:36:53,840 OF PEOPLE CODE SWITCHING IN 2428 01:36:53,840 --> 01:36:54,200 BILINGUALISM. 2429 01:36:54,200 --> 01:36:57,280 THEY MAY START A THOUGHT IN ONE 2430 01:36:57,280 --> 01:36:58,440 LANGUAGE AND THEN SWITCH AND SAY 2431 01:36:58,440 --> 01:37:00,840 THE REST OF THE THOUGHT IN 2432 01:37:00,840 --> 01:37:05,720 ANOTHER LANGUAGE AND SO THERE 2433 01:37:05,720 --> 01:37:08,080 ARE -- AS EVELINA HAS DESCRIBED, 2434 01:37:08,080 --> 01:37:12,440 THERE ARE SO MANY ASPECTS OF 2435 01:37:12,440 --> 01:37:13,760 BILINGUALISM ONE NEEDS TO 2436 01:37:13,760 --> 01:37:15,320 CONTROL FOR TO ANSWER THIS 2437 01:37:15,320 --> 01:37:15,840 QUESTION. 2438 01:37:15,840 --> 01:37:17,240 I DON'T THINK ONE HAS DONE ALL 2439 01:37:17,240 --> 01:37:18,640 OF THOSE KINDS OF CONTROLS AT 2440 01:37:18,640 --> 01:37:19,320 THIS TIME. 2441 01:37:19,320 --> 01:37:23,440 >> NOW, SPEAKING OF BILINGUALISM 2442 01:37:23,440 --> 01:37:26,120 AND MULTILINGUALISM, HERE THE 2443 01:37:26,120 --> 01:37:28,640 QUESTIONER IS ASKING FOR ADVICE. 2444 01:37:28,640 --> 01:37:30,200 AND PERHAPS YOU WILL WANT TO 2445 01:37:30,200 --> 01:37:34,440 DISPENSE ADVICE AND PERHAPS YOU 2446 01:37:34,440 --> 01:37:34,640 WON'T. 2447 01:37:34,640 --> 01:37:36,400 BUT YOU'LL HAVE YOUR 2448 01:37:36,400 --> 01:37:36,680 OPPORTUNITY. 2449 01:37:36,680 --> 01:37:38,480 DO YOU HAVE ANY ADVICE FOR THOSE 2450 01:37:38,480 --> 01:37:41,800 OF US WHO ARE NOT POLYGLOTS OR 2451 01:37:41,800 --> 01:37:43,000 MULTILINGUAL IN HOW BEST TO 2452 01:37:43,000 --> 01:37:48,440 LEARN A NEW LANGUAGE? 2453 01:37:48,440 --> 01:37:50,120 >> I DON'T KNOW WHAT TO SAY. 2454 01:37:50,120 --> 01:37:51,920 >> BE YOUNGER. 2455 01:37:51,920 --> 01:37:53,280 LEARN THEM AS A CHILD. 2456 01:37:53,280 --> 01:37:54,120 >> BE YOUNGER. 2457 01:37:54,120 --> 01:37:55,880 >> YOU KNOW, IT IS MAYBE TOO 2458 01:37:55,880 --> 01:37:58,280 LATE FOR YOU, BUT IF YOU WANT 2459 01:37:58,280 --> 01:37:59,880 YOUR KIDS TO SPEAK ANOTHER 2460 01:37:59,880 --> 01:38:02,240 LANGUAGE, TEACH THEM EARLY. 2461 01:38:02,240 --> 01:38:04,360 THERE IS SOMETHING -- WELL, THAT 2462 01:38:04,360 --> 01:38:05,800 IS STILL DEBATED ABOUT WHETHER 2463 01:38:05,800 --> 01:38:06,600 SOMETHING IS FUNDAMENTALLY 2464 01:38:06,600 --> 01:38:08,000 DIFFERENT ABOUT OUR BRAINS WHEN 2465 01:38:08,000 --> 01:38:10,240 WE ARE ACQUIRING OUR FIRST 2466 01:38:10,240 --> 01:38:11,520 LANGUAGE OR OUR FIRST LANGUAGES 2467 01:38:11,520 --> 01:38:15,320 IN CASES OF BILINGUALISM OR THE 2468 01:38:15,320 --> 01:38:17,200 EXPOSURE IS FUNDAMENTALLY 2469 01:38:17,200 --> 01:38:17,440 DIFFERENT. 2470 01:38:17,440 --> 01:38:20,040 ANY IMMERSION PROGRAM YOU CAN 2471 01:38:20,040 --> 01:38:21,520 IMAGINE YOU NEVER QUITE GET THIS 2472 01:38:21,520 --> 01:38:23,160 EXPERIENCE WHERE INFANTS HAVE 2473 01:38:23,160 --> 01:38:24,960 ANY TIME THEY ARE AWAKE, THERE 2474 01:38:24,960 --> 01:38:26,880 IS A FACE RIGHT IN FRONT OF 2475 01:38:26,880 --> 01:38:28,760 THEIR FACE TALKING AT THEM. 2476 01:38:28,760 --> 01:38:30,120 THAT IS NOT AN EXPERIENCE YOU 2477 01:38:30,120 --> 01:38:32,520 HAVE AS A SECOND LANGUAGE 2478 01:38:32,520 --> 01:38:33,080 LEARNER. 2479 01:38:33,080 --> 01:38:35,840 YEAH, BEYOND TRYING TO LEARN 2480 01:38:35,840 --> 01:38:37,240 LANGUAGES EARLIER IN LIFE, I 2481 01:38:37,240 --> 01:38:40,120 DON'T KNOW IF THERE IS MORE 2482 01:38:40,120 --> 01:38:40,680 WISDOM. 2483 01:38:40,680 --> 01:38:43,320 BUT I -- ONE THING TO SAY, DON'T 2484 01:38:43,320 --> 01:38:45,200 BE, LIKE, IF YOU WANT TO LEARN 2485 01:38:45,200 --> 01:38:45,880 LANGUAGES, YOU CAN. 2486 01:38:45,880 --> 01:38:48,280 PEOPLE HAVE LEARNED LANGUAGES IN 2487 01:38:48,280 --> 01:38:49,240 ADULTHOOD QUITE WELL. 2488 01:38:49,240 --> 01:38:50,440 IF YOU START LEARNING A LANGUAGE 2489 01:38:50,440 --> 01:38:52,320 AND IT IS HARD, YEAH, IT IS 2490 01:38:52,320 --> 01:38:52,520 HARD. 2491 01:38:52,520 --> 01:38:54,520 DON'T BE DISMAYED BY SOME PEOPLE 2492 01:38:54,520 --> 01:38:56,920 ARE GOOD AT IT AND I'M JUST BAD. 2493 01:38:56,920 --> 01:38:58,120 PUT IN THE TIME. 2494 01:38:58,120 --> 01:38:59,680 A LOT OF THINGS GET BETTER WITH 2495 01:38:59,680 --> 01:39:00,520 TIME AND PRACTICE. 2496 01:39:00,520 --> 01:39:02,280 >> MM-HMM. 2497 01:39:02,280 --> 01:39:02,480 YEAH. 2498 01:39:02,480 --> 01:39:04,120 >> LANGUAGE IMMERSION IS ONE WAY 2499 01:39:04,120 --> 01:39:05,800 TO FORCE YOURSELF TO HAVE TO DO 2500 01:39:05,800 --> 01:39:06,800 THAT. 2501 01:39:06,800 --> 01:39:08,040 >> YEAH. 2502 01:39:08,040 --> 01:39:09,920 YEAH. 2503 01:39:09,920 --> 01:39:10,200 YEAH. 2504 01:39:10,200 --> 01:39:12,960 ARE THERE ANY IMAGING STUDIES 2505 01:39:12,960 --> 01:39:15,640 SHOWING CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE 2506 01:39:15,640 --> 01:39:17,440 OF THE BRAIN SAY BETWEEN A YOUNG 2507 01:39:17,440 --> 01:39:18,000 CHILD? 2508 01:39:18,000 --> 01:39:20,440 I MEAN, PRESUMABLY, THERE ARE 2509 01:39:20,440 --> 01:39:23,960 SOME CHANGES, BUT CHANGES THAT 2510 01:39:23,960 --> 01:39:25,440 COULD POSSIBLY ACCOUNT FOR 2511 01:39:25,440 --> 01:39:26,840 DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE 2512 01:39:26,840 --> 01:39:28,680 ACQUISITION VERY EARLY IN LIFE 2513 01:39:28,680 --> 01:39:31,240 VERSUS LATER ON IN LIFE? 2514 01:39:31,240 --> 01:39:35,440 >> WELL, THERE IS A GREAT DEAL 2515 01:39:35,440 --> 01:39:39,640 OF DIFFERENCE IN TERMS OF 2516 01:39:39,640 --> 01:39:41,440 MYLINATION PATTERNS IN CHILDREN. 2517 01:39:41,440 --> 01:39:43,160 I DON'T KNOW THAT IS THE REASON 2518 01:39:43,160 --> 01:39:43,320 WHY. 2519 01:39:43,320 --> 01:39:45,680 BUT WE KNOW THAT IS VERY 2520 01:39:45,680 --> 01:39:49,720 DIFFERENT, THE MYLENATION 2521 01:39:49,720 --> 01:39:51,920 PATTERN WHEN YOU ARE YOUNGER 2522 01:39:51,920 --> 01:39:53,080 VERSUS WHEN YOU ARE OLDER. 2523 01:39:53,080 --> 01:39:55,320 THAT MAY BE ONE THING. 2524 01:39:55,320 --> 01:39:57,240 I DON'T KNOW THAT FOR SURE. 2525 01:39:57,240 --> 01:40:00,920 THERE WAS VERY EARLY, EARLY ON, 2526 01:40:00,920 --> 01:40:03,080 A HYPOTHESIS THAT WHEN YOU 2527 01:40:03,080 --> 01:40:05,640 LEARNED A SECOND LANGUAGE, THERE 2528 01:40:05,640 --> 01:40:09,640 WAS A QUESTION OF WHETHER IT WAS 2529 01:40:09,640 --> 01:40:11,880 SUPERIMPOSED ON THE PRIMARY 2530 01:40:11,880 --> 01:40:15,000 LANGUAGE OR WHETHER IT WAS KIND 2531 01:40:15,000 --> 01:40:15,960 OF REPRESENTED IN A DIFFERENT 2532 01:40:15,960 --> 01:40:19,440 AREA OF THE BRAIN? 2533 01:40:19,440 --> 01:40:20,520 I DON'T KNOW THAT -- AND SOME 2534 01:40:20,520 --> 01:40:30,760 PEOPLE EVEN ARGUE THAT THE 2535 01:40:30,760 --> 01:40:31,400 STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN CHANGED 2536 01:40:31,400 --> 01:40:31,960 AS A FUNCTION OF LEARNING A 2537 01:40:31,960 --> 01:40:32,400 DIFFERENT LANGUAGE. 2538 01:40:32,400 --> 01:40:33,000 I DON'T KNOW THAT THEY HAVE DONE 2539 01:40:33,000 --> 01:40:33,640 IMAGING STUDIES ON THAT, BUT 2540 01:40:33,640 --> 01:40:34,200 THAT WAS ONE THING THAT WAS 2541 01:40:34,200 --> 01:40:40,120 VERY -- THAT WAS TALKED ABOUT 2542 01:40:40,120 --> 01:40:40,480 IRIR 2543 01:40:40,720 --> 01:40:41,840 -- EARLY ON. 2544 01:40:41,840 --> 01:40:50,000 IN PART BECAUSE WHEN PATIENTS 2545 01:40:50,000 --> 01:40:50,640 HAD STROKES, SOME PATIENTS MAY 2546 01:40:50,640 --> 01:40:51,240 HAVE LOST THE ABILITY TO DO 2547 01:40:51,240 --> 01:40:51,840 CERTAIN TASKS IN ONE LANGUAGE 2548 01:40:51,840 --> 01:40:53,160 BUT WAS STILL PRESERVED IN THE 2549 01:40:53,160 --> 01:40:53,800 ORIGINAL LANGUAGE. 2550 01:40:53,800 --> 01:40:55,720 AT ONE POINT THERE WAS TALK 2551 01:40:55,720 --> 01:40:56,440 ABOUT THAT. 2552 01:40:56,440 --> 01:40:58,200 I DON'T KNOW THAT THEY DID -- I 2553 01:40:58,200 --> 01:40:59,560 KNOW THEY DID BEHAVIORAL 2554 01:40:59,560 --> 01:40:59,800 STUDIES. 2555 01:40:59,800 --> 01:41:02,280 I DON'T KNOW IF THEY DID IMAGING 2556 01:41:02,280 --> 01:41:02,920 STUDIES ON THAT. 2557 01:41:02,920 --> 01:41:04,640 >> MM-HMM. 2558 01:41:04,640 --> 01:41:06,280 WELL, BUT IT IS INTERESTING THAT 2559 01:41:06,280 --> 01:41:13,560 A VASCULAR LESION IN A 2560 01:41:13,560 --> 01:41:14,440 PARTICULAR DISTRIBUTION WOULD 2561 01:41:14,440 --> 01:41:16,480 KNOCK OUT YOUR ABILITY TO SPEAK 2562 01:41:16,480 --> 01:41:17,800 GERMAN, BUT NOT ENGLISH. 2563 01:41:17,800 --> 01:41:18,880 >> YEAH. 2564 01:41:18,880 --> 01:41:19,640 BUT NOT ENGLISH. 2565 01:41:19,640 --> 01:41:20,040 YES. 2566 01:41:20,040 --> 01:41:25,320 >> WELL, THAT IS INTERESTING. 2567 01:41:25,320 --> 01:41:26,960 HERE WE HAVE A VERY LONG 2568 01:41:26,960 --> 01:41:29,440 QUESTION I WILL READ TO YOU. 2569 01:41:29,440 --> 01:41:31,200 THANK YOU FOR AH VERY 2570 01:41:31,200 --> 01:41:31,600 INTERESTING TALK. 2571 01:41:31,600 --> 01:41:34,400 FOR ME, THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE 2572 01:41:34,400 --> 01:41:35,960 OF LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY INFLUSING 2573 01:41:35,960 --> 01:41:38,400 THOUGHT COMES FROM THEORY OF 2574 01:41:38,400 --> 01:41:38,760 MIND. 2575 01:41:38,760 --> 01:41:41,280 WHERE OUR PRIMARY LANGUAGE OR 2576 01:41:41,280 --> 01:41:42,640 LANGUAGES SHAPES THE WAY WE 2577 01:41:42,640 --> 01:41:45,480 PLACE OURSELVES IN THE WORLD. 2578 01:41:45,480 --> 01:41:49,240 IN SEVERAL FIRST NATIONS, 2579 01:41:49,240 --> 01:41:51,040 LANGUAGES, FOR INSTANCE, THERE 2580 01:41:51,040 --> 01:41:52,920 ARE MANY MORE GROUP PRONOUNS AND 2581 01:41:52,920 --> 01:41:57,040 THESE SOCIETIES TEND TO BE MORE 2582 01:41:57,040 --> 01:41:59,160 COMMUNITY-ORIENTED AND LESS 2583 01:41:59,160 --> 01:41:59,680 INDIVIDUALISTIC. 2584 01:41:59,680 --> 01:42:01,320 YOU MENTIONED THIS IN PASSING IN 2585 01:42:01,320 --> 01:42:02,560 YOUR SLIDES. 2586 01:42:02,560 --> 01:42:04,240 CAN YOU ELABORATE ON HOW 2587 01:42:04,240 --> 01:42:05,800 LANGUAGE INTERFACES WITH THEORY 2588 01:42:05,800 --> 01:42:06,560 OF MIND AND THROUGH THAT 2589 01:42:06,560 --> 01:42:12,920 COGNITION? 2590 01:42:12,920 --> 01:42:18,240 >> I THINK THAT IS FOR YOU, EVE. 2591 01:42:18,240 --> 01:42:20,720 >> IT IS A FREE-FOR-ALL. 2592 01:42:20,720 --> 01:42:22,520 >> THERE ARE A COUPLE OF IDEAS 2593 01:42:22,520 --> 01:42:23,600 PACKED INTO THIS QUESTION. 2594 01:42:23,600 --> 01:42:26,240 ONE IS TO, AGAIN, EMPHASIZE IN 2595 01:42:26,240 --> 01:42:27,240 CASE THIS WASN'T CLEAR BECAUSE I 2596 01:42:27,240 --> 01:42:29,440 KNOW IT WAS A PRETTY FAST-PACED 2597 01:42:29,440 --> 01:42:31,080 TALK IS THAT IN THE ADULT 2598 01:42:31,080 --> 01:42:32,240 BRAINS, THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM AND 2599 01:42:32,240 --> 01:42:34,040 THE SYSTEM THAT SUPPORTS 2600 01:42:34,040 --> 01:42:35,840 SOCIAL -- THEORY OF MIND OR 2601 01:42:35,840 --> 01:42:38,040 SOCIAL REASONING ARE DISTINCT. 2602 01:42:38,040 --> 01:42:40,000 THEY ACTIVATE DISTINCT BRAIN 2603 01:42:40,000 --> 01:42:42,800 CIRCUITS AND CAN TAKE AWAY YOUR 2604 01:42:42,800 --> 01:42:45,120 LANGUAGE SYSTEM, IN CASES OF A 2605 01:42:45,120 --> 01:42:47,000 LARGE STROKE, YOU CAN STILL 2606 01:42:47,000 --> 01:42:48,320 REASON VERY WELL ABOUT OTHER 2607 01:42:48,320 --> 01:42:51,720 PEOPLE'S MINDS AND INTENTIONS 2608 01:42:51,720 --> 01:42:53,440 AND THINGS LIKE THAT. 2609 01:42:53,440 --> 01:42:55,600 THAT SAID, IN THESE CASES WHERE 2610 01:42:55,600 --> 01:42:58,520 KIDS GROW UP WITHOUT LINGUISTIC 2611 01:42:58,520 --> 01:43:01,040 INPUT, DEAF KIDS GROWING UP WITH 2612 01:43:01,040 --> 01:43:02,680 HEARING PARENTS WHERE NO ONE IS 2613 01:43:02,680 --> 01:43:05,320 SIGNING TO THEM, ONE ASPECT 2614 01:43:05,320 --> 01:43:08,360 LATER DEVELOPING IS THEORY OF 2615 01:43:08,360 --> 01:43:08,560 MIND. 2616 01:43:08,560 --> 01:43:11,480 THINKING WHAT DAN THINKS, WHAT 2617 01:43:11,480 --> 01:43:13,240 NADIA THINK, SECOND ORDER 2618 01:43:13,240 --> 01:43:15,240 REASONS ABOUT THEORY OF MIND. 2619 01:43:15,240 --> 01:43:17,760 THE NATURE OF THAT CONNECTION IS 2620 01:43:17,760 --> 01:43:18,680 NOT CLEAR YET. 2621 01:43:18,680 --> 01:43:21,840 SOME STUDIES CAUSALLY SHOW IF 2622 01:43:21,840 --> 01:43:26,480 YOU TRAIN KIDS ON VERBS OF 2623 01:43:26,480 --> 01:43:27,840 MENTAL STATE ATTRIBUTION LIKE 2624 01:43:27,840 --> 01:43:29,320 BELIEVE OR THINK OR 2625 01:43:29,320 --> 01:43:31,440 CONSTRUCTIONS LIKE THESE 2626 01:43:31,440 --> 01:43:32,960 EMBEDDED CLAUSED CONSTRUCTIONS 2627 01:43:32,960 --> 01:43:34,480 LIKE DAN SAID THAT X. 2628 01:43:34,480 --> 01:43:49,920 THAT IS NOT AN ATRIBT. 2629 01:43:49,920 --> 01:43:52,000 THERE IS A LOT OF COOL WORK TO 2630 01:43:52,000 --> 01:43:52,680 DO THERE. 2631 01:43:52,680 --> 01:43:54,480 I WILL MENTION SO THE SECOND 2632 01:43:54,480 --> 01:43:58,480 PART OF THE QUESTION RAL REALLY 2633 01:43:58,480 --> 01:44:02,480 HAS TO DO WITH EFFECTS OF 2634 01:44:02,480 --> 01:44:02,920 LANGUAGE ON THOUGHT. 2635 01:44:02,920 --> 01:44:08,080 AND THIS RELATES BACK TO WHAT I 2636 01:44:08,080 --> 01:44:09,840 WAS TALKING ABOUT NOT HAVING 2637 01:44:09,840 --> 01:44:11,000 WORDS FOR NUMBERS. 2638 01:44:11,000 --> 01:44:11,840 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS WILL ADAPT 2639 01:44:11,840 --> 01:44:13,880 TO THE NEEDS OF THE SOCIETY. 2640 01:44:13,880 --> 01:44:15,840 SO IF YOU HAVE A NEED TO TALK 2641 01:44:15,840 --> 01:44:17,440 ABOUT SOMETHING, YOU WILL COME 2642 01:44:17,440 --> 01:44:19,880 UP WITH WORDS AND LABELS FOR 2643 01:44:19,880 --> 01:44:20,240 THOSE THINGS. 2644 01:44:20,240 --> 01:44:22,920 IF YOU DON'T HAVE THOSE NEEDS, 2645 01:44:22,920 --> 01:44:23,920 YOU WON'T. 2646 01:44:23,920 --> 01:44:25,600 THERE ARE SOMETIMES STRONGER 2647 01:44:25,600 --> 01:44:27,000 CLAIMS THAT HAVING CERTAIN WORDS 2648 01:44:27,000 --> 01:44:28,480 IN A LANGUAGE MAKE YOU PERCEIVE 2649 01:44:28,480 --> 01:44:32,600 THE WORLD DIFFERENTLY. 2650 01:44:32,600 --> 01:44:35,840 FOR EXAMPLE, COLOR WORDS. 2651 01:44:35,840 --> 01:44:37,960 RUSSIAN HAS TWO DIFFERENT WORDS 2652 01:44:37,960 --> 01:44:39,400 FOR BLUE. 2653 01:44:39,400 --> 01:44:42,600 DARK BLUE AND LIGHT BLUE ARE 2654 01:44:42,600 --> 01:44:43,440 DIFFERENT. 2655 01:44:43,440 --> 01:44:54,440 THOSE CLAIMS DON'T OSEEM TO BE 2656 01:44:54,440 --> 01:44:55,240 EMPIRICALLY ROBUST. 2657 01:44:55,240 --> 01:44:56,760 HAVING A VERBAL LABEL WILL HELP 2658 01:44:56,760 --> 01:44:58,680 YOU DO A TASK IN THE CONTEXT OF 2659 01:44:58,680 --> 01:44:59,840 A LAB EXPERIMENT, OF COURSE YOU 2660 01:44:59,840 --> 01:45:02,480 WILL DO IT. 2661 01:45:02,480 --> 01:45:04,000 WE ARE VERY GOOD OF SOLVING 2662 01:45:04,000 --> 01:45:05,840 PROBLEMS. 2663 01:45:05,840 --> 01:45:09,440 IF WE HAVE A WAY TO ENCODE THAT 2664 01:45:09,440 --> 01:45:10,480 NFGTS, WE WILL. 2665 01:45:10,480 --> 01:45:13,400 THE FACT OF THINKING OF THE 2666 01:45:13,400 --> 01:45:15,480 WORLD DIFFERENTLY, IT IS A LOT 2667 01:45:15,480 --> 01:45:16,120 LESS CLEAR. 2668 01:45:16,120 --> 01:45:18,840 >> SO THE DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN 2669 01:45:18,840 --> 01:45:22,120 DIFFERENT KINDS OF SNOW FLAKES 2670 01:45:22,120 --> 01:45:25,400 THAT ESKIMOS HAVE FOR MULTIPLE 2671 01:45:25,400 --> 01:45:26,960 DIFFERENT WORDS FOR SNOW FLAKES, 2672 01:45:26,960 --> 01:45:28,720 WET SNOW, DRY SNOW, WHATEVER. 2673 01:45:28,720 --> 01:45:29,480 >> YEAH. 2674 01:45:29,480 --> 01:45:31,520 >> YOU CAN IMAGINE THAT BUT 2675 01:45:31,520 --> 01:45:35,400 PERHAPS IT IS HARDER TO THINK 2676 01:45:35,400 --> 01:45:39,520 ABOUT HOW DIFFERENT WORDS FOR 2677 01:45:39,520 --> 01:45:40,680 DIFFERENT FEELINGS OR 2678 01:45:40,680 --> 01:45:43,520 MOTIVATIONS OR THINGS LIKE THAT. 2679 01:45:43,520 --> 01:45:45,280 >> EVEN THE WORDS FOR SNOW. 2680 01:45:45,280 --> 01:45:46,640 THERE IS SOMETHING FUNNY 2681 01:45:46,640 --> 01:45:47,600 SOMETIMES IN THE REASONING 2682 01:45:47,600 --> 01:45:48,360 DIRECTION. 2683 01:45:48,360 --> 01:45:49,600 IT IS NOT LIKE HAVING THOSE 2684 01:45:49,600 --> 01:45:52,440 WORDS MAKES YOU BETTER ABLE TO 2685 01:45:52,440 --> 01:45:53,720 DISCRIMINATE DIFFERENT SNOW. 2686 01:45:53,720 --> 01:45:55,280 YOU ARE IN AN ENVIRONMENT WHERE 2687 01:45:55,280 --> 01:45:57,160 THERE ARE FINE GRAIN 2688 01:45:57,160 --> 01:45:58,560 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT 2689 01:45:58,560 --> 01:46:00,200 KINDS OF SNOW SO YOU COME UP 2690 01:46:00,200 --> 01:46:01,720 WITH LABELS BECAUSE IT IS FUN TO 2691 01:46:01,720 --> 01:46:02,640 TALK ABOUT IT. 2692 01:46:02,640 --> 01:46:05,760 IT IS USEFUL TO MAKE THOSE 2693 01:46:05,760 --> 01:46:06,840 DISTINCTIONS LINGUISTICALLY WHEN 2694 01:46:06,840 --> 01:46:08,240 YOU COMMUNICATE. 2695 01:46:08,240 --> 01:46:10,080 THAT MAKES MUCH MORE LOGICAL 2696 01:46:10,080 --> 01:46:11,200 SENSE TO ME AND THE EVIDENCE 2697 01:46:11,200 --> 01:46:12,680 GOES ALONG WITH THAT AS WELL. 2698 01:46:12,680 --> 01:46:14,760 >> YEAH. 2699 01:46:14,760 --> 01:46:16,760 WELL, AND PRESUMABLY, THINGS 2700 01:46:16,760 --> 01:46:18,520 LIKE EMOTIONAL STATES AND THINGS 2701 01:46:18,520 --> 01:46:21,040 LIKE THAT ARE MUCH HARDER TO 2702 01:46:21,040 --> 01:46:25,240 COMPARE BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND 2703 01:46:25,240 --> 01:46:26,520 TO VERIFY WHAT EACH PERSON IS 2704 01:46:26,520 --> 01:46:27,440 TALKING ABOUT. 2705 01:46:27,440 --> 01:46:28,840 >> THAT'S RIGHT. 2706 01:46:28,840 --> 01:46:29,520 >> BETWEEN EACH OTHER. 2707 01:46:29,520 --> 01:46:31,600 >> THAT'S RIGHT. 2708 01:46:31,600 --> 01:46:32,000 YEAH. 2709 01:46:32,000 --> 01:46:34,080 ALSO, COULD I PUT A PLUG FOR 2710 01:46:34,080 --> 01:46:37,440 ANOTHER COOL PAPER FROM A GROUP 2711 01:46:37,440 --> 01:46:39,040 THAT RECENTLY SHOWED THAT 2712 01:46:39,040 --> 01:46:40,840 PEOPLE'S KNOWLEDGE OF ABSTRACT 2713 01:46:40,840 --> 01:46:42,760 CONCEPTS IS MUCH MORE VARIABLE. 2714 01:46:42,760 --> 01:46:44,960 WHAT YOU THINK JUSTICE IS AND 2715 01:46:44,960 --> 01:46:47,560 WHAT I THINK JUSTICE IS IS LESS 2716 01:46:47,560 --> 01:46:49,040 SIMILAR TO WHAT YOU THINK TABLE 2717 01:46:49,040 --> 01:46:51,040 IS AND I THINK TABLE IS. 2718 01:46:51,040 --> 01:46:52,920 IT CAN BE SHOWN WITH BRAIN 2719 01:46:52,920 --> 01:46:56,760 IMAGES APPROACHES AND STUDIES 2720 01:46:56,760 --> 01:46:57,840 BETWEEN WORDS. 2721 01:46:57,840 --> 01:47:04,240 IDIOSIN CONTRACTIC TOWER OF 2722 01:47:04,240 --> 01:47:05,240 BABBLE CAME OUT LAST YEAR. 2723 01:47:05,240 --> 01:47:06,640 AN INTERESTING PAPER. 2724 01:47:06,640 --> 01:47:10,240 >> IT IS AN INTERESTING THOUGHT, 2725 01:47:10,240 --> 01:47:15,280 GOING BACK TO LUDWIG 2726 01:47:15,280 --> 01:47:15,600 WECHENSTEIN. 2727 01:47:15,600 --> 01:47:17,440 THE BEETLE IN THE BOX. 2728 01:47:17,440 --> 01:47:19,440 IS YOUR BEETLE IN YOUR BOX THE 2729 01:47:19,440 --> 01:47:21,360 SAME AS MY BEETLE IN MY BOX? 2730 01:47:21,360 --> 01:47:23,080 IT IS AN INTERESTING THING TO 2731 01:47:23,080 --> 01:47:25,240 THINK ABOUT, FOR A MOMENT, 2732 01:47:25,240 --> 01:47:25,480 ANYWAY. 2733 01:47:25,480 --> 01:47:27,720 >> ALTHOUGH THE PATIENTS, EVEN 2734 01:47:27,720 --> 01:47:31,440 THOUGH THAT IS TRUE, THE 2735 01:47:31,440 --> 01:47:34,280 PATIENTS WITH BROCA'S APHASIA DO 2736 01:47:34,280 --> 01:47:39,240 STILL HAVE MORE DIFFICULTY IS IN 2737 01:47:39,240 --> 01:47:41,440 GENERAL WITH WORDS THAT ARE 2738 01:47:41,440 --> 01:47:44,080 CONSIDERED CONTENT WORDS, 2739 01:47:44,080 --> 01:47:45,440 REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THOSE 2740 01:47:45,440 --> 01:47:47,800 CONTENT WORDS ARE ABSTRACT OR 2741 01:47:47,800 --> 01:47:50,000 HIGHLY VISUAL. 2742 01:47:50,000 --> 01:47:53,040 WHICH IS I THINK AN INTERESTING 2743 01:47:53,040 --> 01:47:53,800 PHENOMENA. 2744 01:47:53,800 --> 01:47:55,840 WE PROBABLY NEED TO LOOK A 2745 01:47:55,840 --> 01:47:57,760 LITTLE BIT MORE INTO THAT TO TRY 2746 01:47:57,760 --> 01:47:58,520 TO UNDERSTAND WHY THAT IS THE 2747 01:47:58,520 --> 01:48:00,840 CASE. 2748 01:48:00,840 --> 01:48:02,240 >> MM-HMM. 2749 01:48:02,240 --> 01:48:04,360 >> THIS IS ACTUALLY TRUE 2750 01:48:04,360 --> 01:48:06,000 REGARDLESS OF LANGUAGE 2751 01:48:06,000 --> 01:48:06,320 STRUCTURE. 2752 01:48:06,320 --> 01:48:09,000 EVEN THOUGH YOU HAVE LANGUAGES 2753 01:48:09,000 --> 01:48:12,360 IN THE INDO EUROPEAN LANGUAGES 2754 01:48:12,360 --> 01:48:14,440 WHERE THE GRAMMATICAL ITEMS ARE 2755 01:48:14,440 --> 01:48:17,760 SEPARATE FROM THE CONTENT WORDS, 2756 01:48:17,760 --> 01:48:20,680 BUT LANGUAGES LIKE ARABIC AND 2757 01:48:20,680 --> 01:48:23,120 HEBREW, WHERE THE GRAMMATICAL 2758 01:48:23,120 --> 01:48:25,480 ITEMS ARE EMBEDDED IN THE WORD, 2759 01:48:25,480 --> 01:48:27,640 THEY HAVE MANY MORE SUBSTITUTION 2760 01:48:27,640 --> 01:48:29,640 ERRORS AS OPPOSED TO DROPPING 2761 01:48:29,640 --> 01:48:30,480 THEM OUT. 2762 01:48:30,480 --> 01:48:33,000 SUBSTITUTION ERRORS ON THE ITEMS 2763 01:48:33,000 --> 01:48:35,640 THAT ARE CONSIDERED KIND OF 2764 01:48:35,640 --> 01:48:38,840 GRAMMATICAL VERSUS THOSE THAT 2765 01:48:38,840 --> 01:48:41,760 REPRESENT MORE CONTENT 2766 01:48:41,760 --> 01:48:42,040 ORIENTATION. 2767 01:48:42,040 --> 01:48:45,440 VERY INTERESTING PHENOMENON. 2768 01:48:45,440 --> 01:48:49,000 >> SO HERE IS ANOTHER QUESTION 2769 01:48:49,000 --> 01:48:49,840 FROM THE GROUP. 2770 01:48:49,840 --> 01:48:52,000 EV FEDORENKO'S COMMENTS ON 2771 01:48:52,000 --> 01:48:53,360 STORAGE ECHO WHAT IS HAPPENING 2772 01:48:53,360 --> 01:48:55,960 IN A.I. AND MACHINE LEARNING. 2773 01:48:55,960 --> 01:48:58,320 WHAT SEPARATES THE SUCCESSES OF 2774 01:48:58,320 --> 01:49:00,000 A.I., MACHINE LEARNING TODAY 2775 01:49:00,000 --> 01:49:03,240 FROM THE POOR PERFORMANCES OF 2776 01:49:03,240 --> 01:49:05,840 OLD IS NOT NEW ALGORITHMS BUT 2777 01:49:05,840 --> 01:49:07,640 MORE STORAGE, MORE DATA AND MORE 2778 01:49:07,640 --> 01:49:09,240 PROCESSING SPEED TO DEAL WITH 2779 01:49:09,240 --> 01:49:11,160 INCREASED DATA STORAGE. 2780 01:49:11,160 --> 01:49:13,000 MAYBE THAT IS SOMEWHAT OF A 2781 01:49:13,000 --> 01:49:16,600 COMMENT RATHER THAN A QUESTION, 2782 01:49:16,600 --> 01:49:17,760 BUT ANY ADDITIONAL THINGS TO SAY 2783 01:49:17,760 --> 01:49:18,920 ABOUT THAT? 2784 01:49:18,920 --> 01:49:24,280 >> I AGREE. 2785 01:49:24,280 --> 01:49:25,000 YEAH. 2786 01:49:25,000 --> 01:49:31,120 THE AVAILABILITY OF LARGE 2787 01:49:31,120 --> 01:49:33,040 COMPUTER, YOU CAN TRAIN A VASTER 2788 01:49:33,040 --> 01:49:34,400 AMOUNT OF LANGUAGE. 2789 01:49:34,400 --> 01:49:35,840 >> EVELINA, DO YOU THINK THAT 2790 01:49:35,840 --> 01:49:38,240 THE A.I. ARCHITECTURES THAT WE 2791 01:49:38,240 --> 01:49:46,440 HAVE NOW ARE REPRESENT TATIVE OF 2792 01:49:46,440 --> 01:49:47,560 WHAT THE BRAIN IS DOING? 2793 01:49:47,560 --> 01:49:50,680 DO WE TAKE IN MILLIONS AND 2794 01:49:50,680 --> 01:49:52,960 MILLIONS OF LEXICON ITEMS OR 2795 01:49:52,960 --> 01:49:54,960 DOES THE HUMAN BRAIN LEARN ON 2796 01:49:54,960 --> 01:49:56,880 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE 2797 01:49:56,880 --> 01:49:59,040 THAT HAS INPUT, MUCH LESSER 2798 01:49:59,040 --> 01:50:00,560 INPUT OF ITEMS? 2799 01:50:00,560 --> 01:50:03,200 >> WELL, THERE IS NO QUESTION 2800 01:50:03,200 --> 01:50:04,440 THAT HUMAN BABIES LEARN LANGUAGE 2801 01:50:04,440 --> 01:50:06,440 DIFFERENTLY IN ALL SORTS OF 2802 01:50:06,440 --> 01:50:08,120 WAYS, NOT IN THE AMOUNT OF 2803 01:50:08,120 --> 01:50:09,440 INPUT, BUT THE KIND OF INPUT. 2804 01:50:09,440 --> 01:50:12,160 THEY ARE LEARNING ABOUT THE 2805 01:50:12,160 --> 01:50:13,760 WORLD AND THE MAPPINGS. 2806 01:50:13,760 --> 01:50:16,040 THEY LEARN FROM MUCH FEWER 2807 01:50:16,040 --> 01:50:16,320 EXPOSURES. 2808 01:50:16,320 --> 01:50:19,040 I THINK IT IS A LITTLE BIT -- IT 2809 01:50:19,040 --> 01:50:21,960 IS UNDENIABLY THE CASE THAT 2810 01:50:21,960 --> 01:50:23,840 USING COMPUTATIONAL VISION 2811 01:50:23,840 --> 01:50:26,360 MODELS AND LANGUAGE MODELS FROM 2812 01:50:26,360 --> 01:50:28,560 THE NLP FIELD, THEY SEEM TO HAVE 2813 01:50:28,560 --> 01:50:31,000 SOMETHING THAT CAPTURES NEURAL 2814 01:50:31,000 --> 01:50:33,520 RESPONSES IN PRIMATE BRAINING 2815 01:50:33,520 --> 01:50:35,840 AND MOUSE BRAINS AS WELL, A 2816 01:50:35,840 --> 01:50:37,760 RECENT PAPER ON VISION IN MICE. 2817 01:50:37,760 --> 01:50:39,640 SO SOMETHING ABOUT THEM IS 2818 01:50:39,640 --> 01:50:40,200 SIMILAR. 2819 01:50:40,200 --> 01:50:42,360 NOW, I THINK WE ARE NOT GOING TO 2820 01:50:42,360 --> 01:50:45,400 GET VERY FAR IF WE TAKE ONE 2821 01:50:45,400 --> 01:50:47,880 MODEL AND SAYS THIS CAPTURES 2822 01:50:47,880 --> 01:50:50,080 THIS AMOUNT OF VARIANCE IN MY 2823 01:50:50,080 --> 01:50:50,280 DATA. 2824 01:50:50,280 --> 01:50:52,960 THIS APPROACH THAT HAS BEEN 2825 01:50:52,960 --> 01:50:54,120 ADVOCATED LOCALLY IN MY 2826 01:50:54,120 --> 01:50:56,640 DEPARTMENT BY JIM DeCARO'S 2827 01:50:56,640 --> 01:50:58,760 GROUP, INTEGRATIVE BENCHMARKING. 2828 01:50:58,760 --> 01:51:00,840 YOU TAKE A WHOLE BUNCH OF MODELS 2829 01:51:00,840 --> 01:51:03,000 AND DATASETS AND TRY TO LOOK FOR 2830 01:51:03,000 --> 01:51:03,320 TRENDS. 2831 01:51:03,320 --> 01:51:04,040 >> YEAH. 2832 01:51:04,040 --> 01:51:05,840 >> PROBABLY NONE OF THESE MODELS 2833 01:51:05,840 --> 01:51:06,840 ARE RIGHT. 2834 01:51:06,840 --> 01:51:07,520 >> THAT'S RIGHT. 2835 01:51:07,520 --> 01:51:10,520 >> SOME ARE BETTER THAN OTHERS 2836 01:51:10,520 --> 01:51:14,120 AND WE CAN TRY TO LEVERAGE THIS 2837 01:51:14,120 --> 01:51:18,440 KNOWLEDGE IN THE GROWING SUITE 2838 01:51:18,440 --> 01:51:21,640 OF MODELS TO TRY TO GAIN SOME 2839 01:51:21,640 --> 01:51:23,240 INSIGHTS INTO HOW HUMANS MIGHT 2840 01:51:23,240 --> 01:51:25,240 BE DOING IT THROUGH SEEING WHICH 2841 01:51:25,240 --> 01:51:28,840 OF THESE ASPECTS OF THE MODELS 2842 01:51:28,840 --> 01:51:30,240 AFFECT MATCH TO THE HUMAN BRAIN 2843 01:51:30,240 --> 01:51:32,240 OR WHAT WE CALL BRAIN SCORES. 2844 01:51:32,240 --> 01:51:32,720 >> YEAH. 2845 01:51:32,720 --> 01:51:34,720 >> BUT THERE IS A WHOLE LINE OF 2846 01:51:34,720 --> 01:51:38,520 WORK TRYING TO USE UNSUPERVISED 2847 01:51:38,520 --> 01:51:40,640 LEARNING ALGORITHMS, DEVELOP 2848 01:51:40,640 --> 01:51:43,560 MORE HUMAN LIKE LEARNING 2849 01:51:43,560 --> 01:51:45,240 ALGORITHMS TO SEE HOW THOSE 2850 01:51:45,240 --> 01:51:47,360 MODELS DO AND THAT IS ALSO AN 2851 01:51:47,360 --> 01:51:47,840 EXCITING DIRECTION. 2852 01:51:47,840 --> 01:51:50,480 >> OKAY, NOW, HERE IS ONE THAT 2853 01:51:50,480 --> 01:51:52,440 IS TURNING THE CLOCK BACK 2854 01:51:52,440 --> 01:51:54,320 100,000 YEARS OR SOMETHING LIKE 2855 01:51:54,320 --> 01:51:54,520 THAT. 2856 01:51:54,520 --> 01:51:57,760 SO HOW DOES QUOTE-UNQUOTE 2857 01:51:57,760 --> 01:51:58,920 MECHANISM FIT INTO THIS 2858 01:51:58,920 --> 01:52:02,520 DISCUSSION ABOUT LANGUAGE 2859 01:52:02,520 --> 01:52:02,800 EVOLUTION? 2860 01:52:02,800 --> 01:52:05,440 THE QUESTIONER SAYS THAT THEY'VE 2861 01:52:05,440 --> 01:52:08,640 READ THAT NEANDERTHAL MIGHT NOT 2862 01:52:08,640 --> 01:52:10,280 HAVE HAD LANGUAGE, NOT BECAUSE 2863 01:52:10,280 --> 01:52:12,840 THEY WEREN'T SMART, 2864 01:52:12,840 --> 01:52:13,840 QUOTE-UNQUOTE, BUT RATHER THEY 2865 01:52:13,840 --> 01:52:16,240 DIDN'T HAVE THE SOPHISTICATED 2866 01:52:16,240 --> 01:52:18,080 VOCAL TRACK, YET THEY COULD 2867 01:52:18,080 --> 01:52:18,440 DRAW. 2868 01:52:18,440 --> 01:52:19,160 SO DO YOU HAVE ANY COMMENTS ON 2869 01:52:19,160 --> 01:52:24,720 THAT? 2870 01:52:24,720 --> 01:52:26,960 SO THE QUESTION IS ABOUT YOU 2871 01:52:26,960 --> 01:52:29,840 WOULD HAVE A SOPHISTICATED VOCAL 2872 01:52:29,840 --> 01:52:31,240 TRACK AND THAT MAKES PART OF THE 2873 01:52:31,240 --> 01:52:32,880 DIFFERENCE IN TERMS OF WHETHER 2874 01:52:32,880 --> 01:52:34,440 HUMANS CAN SPEAK OR NOT. 2875 01:52:34,440 --> 01:52:38,600 >> NADIA, DO YOU WANT TO -- 2876 01:52:38,600 --> 01:52:39,320 WHETHER NEANDERTHALS HAD 2877 01:52:39,320 --> 01:52:42,400 LANGUAGE IS QUITE DEBATED. 2878 01:52:42,400 --> 01:52:44,280 WE SHOULD NOT JUST SAY THEY 2879 01:52:44,280 --> 01:52:44,520 DIDN'T. 2880 01:52:44,520 --> 01:52:46,880 WE DON'T KNOW IF THEY DID. 2881 01:52:46,880 --> 01:52:48,040 CERTAINLY SOME PEOPLE ARGUE THEY 2882 01:52:48,040 --> 01:52:50,280 DID. 2883 01:52:50,280 --> 01:52:52,600 BUT IN GENERAL, THAT WAS ONE OF 2884 01:52:52,600 --> 01:52:54,520 THE IDEAS FOR WHY OTHER ANIMALS 2885 01:52:54,520 --> 01:52:55,600 DON'T HAVE LANGUAGE BECAUSE 2886 01:52:55,600 --> 01:52:57,720 THEIR VOCAL TRACKS ARE DIFFERENT 2887 01:52:57,720 --> 01:53:00,320 AND THEY CAN PRODUCE ORIGINS OF 2888 01:53:00,320 --> 01:53:00,520 SOUNDS. 2889 01:53:00,520 --> 01:53:03,920 THAT IS ALMOST CERTAINLY NOT 2890 01:53:03,920 --> 01:53:04,120 TRUE. 2891 01:53:04,120 --> 01:53:05,920 RESEARCHERS HAVE SPENT A LOT OF 2892 01:53:05,920 --> 01:53:11,440 TIME TRYING TO BUILD IN VOCAL 2893 01:53:11,440 --> 01:53:13,240 PAP RA US THE TO HAVE HUMAN LIKE 2894 01:53:13,240 --> 01:53:15,080 SOUNDS AND THAT IS NOT ENOUGH. 2895 01:53:15,080 --> 01:53:16,960 IT IS THE DIFFERENCE IN THE 2896 01:53:16,960 --> 01:53:22,040 BRAIN NOT LOW LEVEL MACHINERY. 2897 01:53:22,040 --> 01:53:24,120 NEANDERTHALS AND SIMILARLY FOR 2898 01:53:24,120 --> 01:53:25,520 HUMAN INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE DEAF, 2899 01:53:25,520 --> 01:53:28,200 WE CAN USE OUR HANDS. 2900 01:53:28,200 --> 01:53:29,880 WE CAN DEVELOP FULL BLOWN 2901 01:53:29,880 --> 01:53:32,680 LANGUAGES USING A MANUAL 2902 01:53:32,680 --> 01:53:32,920 MODALITY. 2903 01:53:32,920 --> 01:53:36,760 IN FACT, MANY STORIES OF 2904 01:53:36,760 --> 01:53:43,520 LANGUAGE ORIGINS FAVOR GESTURES 2905 01:53:43,520 --> 01:53:45,480 RATHER THAN VOCAL. 2906 01:53:45,480 --> 01:53:47,840 THERE IS STRONG EVIDENCE TO 2907 01:53:47,840 --> 01:53:50,320 ARGUE THAT IT IS SOMETHING 2908 01:53:50,320 --> 01:53:51,720 DIFFERENT THAN PRODUCTION 2909 01:53:51,720 --> 01:53:53,120 MACHINERY THAT HAS GIVEN US 2910 01:53:53,120 --> 01:53:54,320 LANGUAGE. 2911 01:53:54,320 --> 01:53:56,400 IT IS 5:56: 56. 2912 01:53:56,400 --> 01:53:58,520 SO WE HAVE, WHATEVER, THREE 2913 01:53:58,520 --> 01:53:59,560 MINUTES LEFT. 2914 01:53:59,560 --> 01:54:02,440 SO I'M GOING TO ASK JUST THE 2915 01:54:02,440 --> 01:54:04,960 VERY LAST QUESTION HERE, WHICH 2916 01:54:04,960 --> 01:54:08,600 IS, IS THERE TRULY A CONNECTION 2917 01:54:08,600 --> 01:54:09,600 BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND CLIMATE? 2918 01:54:09,600 --> 01:54:12,440 I DIDN'T KNOW THERE WAS ONE IN 2919 01:54:12,440 --> 01:54:13,000 THE FIRST PLACE. 2920 01:54:13,000 --> 01:54:14,840 VOWEL BASED LANGUAGES IN 2921 01:54:14,840 --> 01:54:19,600 TROPICAL REASONS IN HAWAII AND 2922 01:54:19,600 --> 01:54:24,440 HARD CONSONANT LANGUAGE SUCH AS 2923 01:54:24,440 --> 01:54:26,520 POLISH OR RUSSIAN, IF SO, WHAT 2924 01:54:26,520 --> 01:54:27,240 THAT MIGHT REVEAL? 2925 01:54:27,240 --> 01:54:27,720 >> YEAH. 2926 01:54:27,720 --> 01:54:35,640 I THINK THAT IS A VERY EXCITING 2927 01:54:35,640 --> 01:54:39,160 WORK. 2928 01:54:39,160 --> 01:54:42,560 CALEB EVERETT AND HIS SON HAS 2929 01:54:42,560 --> 01:54:44,920 BEEN IN THE FORE FRONT OF THESE 2930 01:54:44,920 --> 01:54:45,360 EFFORTS. 2931 01:54:45,360 --> 01:54:48,520 IN SOME SENSE, IT IS NOT TOTALLY 2932 01:54:48,520 --> 01:54:48,840 UNEXPECTED. 2933 01:54:48,840 --> 01:54:49,520 OUR ENVIRONMENT WILL SHAPE 2934 01:54:49,520 --> 01:54:51,800 THINGS ABOUT OUR BEHAVIORS SO IT 2935 01:54:51,800 --> 01:54:53,680 IS NOT AT ALL CRAZY IF CERTAIN 2936 01:54:53,680 --> 01:54:56,120 KINDS OF SOUNDS ARE BETTER 2937 01:54:56,120 --> 01:54:57,080 TRANSMITTED IN CERTAIN 2938 01:54:57,080 --> 01:54:59,320 ENVIRONMENTS THAT LANGUAGES WILL 2939 01:54:59,320 --> 01:55:02,440 OPTIMIZE THE USE OF THOSE 2940 01:55:02,440 --> 01:55:02,680 SOUNDS. 2941 01:55:02,680 --> 01:55:04,680 WE ARE VERY EFFICIENT CREATURES. 2942 01:55:04,680 --> 01:55:06,560 WE FIND WAYS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS 2943 01:55:06,560 --> 01:55:08,520 IN ALL SORTS OF WAYS. 2944 01:55:08,520 --> 01:55:10,480 SOME OF THESE ENVIRONMENTAL 2945 01:55:10,480 --> 01:55:12,120 FACTORS ARE REFLECTED IN THE 2946 01:55:12,120 --> 01:55:13,480 LANGUAGE'S SOUND SYSTEMS THAT 2947 01:55:13,480 --> 01:55:14,520 MAKES SENSE. 2948 01:55:14,520 --> 01:55:19,320 I DON'T WANT TO TRIVIALIZE THOSE 2949 01:55:19,320 --> 01:55:19,720 FINDINGS. 2950 01:55:19,720 --> 01:55:21,480 SOMETIMES THAT HAPPENS IN 2951 01:55:21,480 --> 01:55:22,800 SCIENCE, OF COURSE, LANGUAGE IS 2952 01:55:22,800 --> 01:55:24,920 SEPARATE FROM THOUGHT, BUT UP 2953 01:55:24,920 --> 01:55:27,080 UNTIL 10 YEARS AGO PEOPLE WERE 2954 01:55:27,080 --> 01:55:28,240 ARGUING FOR QUITE A DIFFERENT 2955 01:55:28,240 --> 01:55:28,680 VIEW. 2956 01:55:28,680 --> 01:55:31,640 I DON'T WANT TO TRIVIALIZE THOSE 2957 01:55:31,640 --> 01:55:31,920 FINDINGS. 2958 01:55:31,920 --> 01:55:34,800 I THINK THAT THEY ARE 2959 01:55:34,800 --> 01:55:36,920 FASCINATING AND EXCITING STUFF 2960 01:55:36,920 --> 01:55:40,240 TO DO THERE TO UNDERSTAND THE 2961 01:55:40,240 --> 01:55:42,880 ASPECTS OF THE CLIMATE TO AFFECT 2962 01:55:42,880 --> 01:55:44,000 THE LANGUAGE OF SOUND SYSTEMS. 2963 01:55:44,000 --> 01:55:46,120 IT IS A COOL RESEARCH PROGRAM. 2964 01:55:46,120 --> 01:55:48,240 >> ALL RIGHT, WELL WE ARE DOWN 2965 01:55:48,240 --> 01:55:52,000 TO OUR LAST MINUTE. 2966 01:55:52,000 --> 01:55:55,600 DR. ARIAS WANTS TO INTERJECT. 2967 01:55:55,600 --> 01:55:56,280 PLEASE, WIN. 2968 01:55:56,280 --> 01:55:59,400 >> WHAT DO WE UNDERSTAND ABOUT 2969 01:55:59,400 --> 01:56:01,560 HOW A NEWBORN CHILD GROWS UP IN 2970 01:56:01,560 --> 01:56:04,840 A FAMILY WHERE THREE OR FOUR 2971 01:56:04,840 --> 01:56:06,200 LANGUAGES ARE THE PRIMARY 2972 01:56:06,200 --> 01:56:10,360 LANGUAGES OF THE FAMILY? 2973 01:56:10,360 --> 01:56:12,200 HOW DOES THE BRAIN SEGREGATE 2974 01:56:12,200 --> 01:56:16,600 THOSE LANGUAGES ONE FROM THE 2975 01:56:16,600 --> 01:56:17,720 OTHER AND WHAT ARE YOUR THOUGHTS 2976 01:56:17,720 --> 01:56:23,000 ABOUT THAT? 2977 01:56:23,000 --> 01:56:26,920 >> I MEAN, HUMANS AND INFANTS, 2978 01:56:26,920 --> 01:56:30,240 INCLUDING INFANCY, ARE VERY 2979 01:56:30,240 --> 01:56:31,760 SOPHISTICATED STATISTICAL 2980 01:56:31,760 --> 01:56:32,280 LEARNERS. 2981 01:56:32,280 --> 01:56:34,160 IF YOU HAVE DIFFERENT LANGUAGES, 2982 01:56:34,160 --> 01:56:36,920 THEY HAVE DIFFERENT STATTAL 2983 01:56:36,920 --> 01:56:38,640 PROPERTIES, NOT JUST THE SIGNAL. 2984 01:56:38,640 --> 01:56:40,560 BUT YOUR MOM MAY ALWAYS SPEAK IN 2985 01:56:40,560 --> 01:56:41,920 CHINESE AND YOUR DAD IN ENGLISH. 2986 01:56:41,920 --> 01:56:44,720 WE PAY ATTENTION TO THOSE 2987 01:56:44,720 --> 01:56:45,760 THINGS, RIGHT. 2988 01:56:45,760 --> 01:56:50,840 FROM JENNY SAFFRON'S SEMINAL 2989 01:56:50,840 --> 01:56:52,600 FINDINGS, HUMANS ARE VERY GOOD 2990 01:56:52,600 --> 01:56:54,360 AT PAYING ATTENTION TO ALL SORTS 2991 01:56:54,360 --> 01:56:56,640 OF REGULARITIES IN THEIR 2992 01:56:56,640 --> 01:56:57,200 ENVIRONMENTS. 2993 01:56:57,200 --> 01:57:00,320 YEAH, IT DOESN'T SEEM LIKE THEY 2994 01:57:00,320 --> 01:57:05,200 RUN INTO PROBLEMS ACQUIRING 2995 01:57:05,200 --> 01:57:06,920 MULTIPLE LANGUAGES. 2996 01:57:06,920 --> 01:57:08,720 THEY DON'T GET CONFUSED. 2997 01:57:08,720 --> 01:57:11,880 BEING YOUNG, IF YOU WANT TO 2998 01:57:11,880 --> 01:57:13,800 LEARN MULTIPLE LANGUAGES, IT 2999 01:57:13,800 --> 01:57:14,160 SEEMS EASIER. 3000 01:57:14,160 --> 01:57:15,520 >> ALL RIGHT. 3001 01:57:15,520 --> 01:57:17,360 THE NEXT SESSION PERHAPS OR 3002 01:57:17,360 --> 01:57:19,240 MAYBE NEXT YEAR WE CAN START 3003 01:57:19,240 --> 01:57:23,720 THINKING ABOUT TIME MACHINES AND 3004 01:57:23,720 --> 01:57:27,120 OTHER THINGS THAT WE CAN USE TO 3005 01:57:27,120 --> 01:57:28,360 ADVANCE OURSELVES. 3006 01:57:28,360 --> 01:57:30,160 WELL, ANYWAY, THIS HAS REALLY 3007 01:57:30,160 --> 01:57:33,520 BEEN GREAT FUN AND I THANK THE 3008 01:57:33,520 --> 01:57:37,520 BOTH OF YOU, EV AND NADIA, FOR 3009 01:57:37,520 --> 01:57:39,640 REALLY INCREDIBLY WONDERFUL 3010 01:57:39,640 --> 01:57:42,320 TALKS AND REALLY STIMULATING 3011 01:57:42,320 --> 01:57:43,520 DISCUSSION THIS AFTERNOON. 3012 01:57:43,520 --> 01:57:44,960 WE COULD GO ON FOR I THINK 3013 01:57:44,960 --> 01:57:47,480 ANOTHER HOUR IF WE HAD THE TIME, 3014 01:57:47,480 --> 01:57:49,520 BUT ALL GOOD THINGS DO COME TO 3015 01:57:49,520 --> 01:57:50,920 AN END. 3016 01:57:50,920 --> 01:57:52,360 SO WE THANK YOU BOTH AGAIN FROM 3017 01:57:52,360 --> 01:57:54,960 THE BOTTOMS OF OUR HEARTS FOR 3018 01:57:54,960 --> 01:57:57,720 TAKING THE TIME WITH US THIS 3019 01:57:57,720 --> 01:57:59,160 AFTERNOON AND STAY SAFE AND BE 3020 01:57:59,160 --> 01:58:01,520 WELL AND WHO KNOWS, WE MAY BE 3021 01:58:01,520 --> 01:58:08,840 CALLING YOU BACK SOMETIME IN THE 3022 01:58:08,840 --> 01:58:12,200 FUTURE FOR REPRIZE OF THIS 3023 01:58:12,200 --> 01:58:12,440 SESSION. 3024 01:58:12,440 --> 01:58:13,760 >> THANK YOU. 3025 01:58:13,760 --> 01:58:14,120 >> THANK YOU. 3026 01:58:14,120 --> 01:58:17,120 >> BYE-BYE.